Global Utilities

La Trobe University
Study Skills Scheme

Chapter 9

Referencing – An Overview

Introduction

Learning at university is characterised by a culture of enquiry. Academic writing builds on a pre-existing philosophy, theorem or understanding and draws on evidence from research to put forward new propositions. The purpose of referencing is to accurately and unambiguously acknowledge the sources you have drawn on in your writing. To use another’s ideas as if they are your own is called plagiarism. This chapter provides guidance on what and where you need to reference in your written assignments, as well as tips on how to avoid plagiarism.

Key elements of referencing

Why you need to reference

In university study, you are required to use referencing in all written assignments in order to:

  • acknowledge the work or ideas of other people that you use in your own writing
  • support your claims/argument (e.g. in an essay), your analysis of results in a prac. experiment, or your critique of theories/published research
  • show that you are familiar with the literature
  • allow the reader to follow up your sources of information

What you need to reference

You should reference material you have cited from all sources, including academic books, academic journal articles and electronic sources. Electronic sources that are appropriate to use in academic writing include refereed journals, reports (government and those by non-government organisations), conference papers, media releases, and so on). When writing prac. reports, for example in Physiology, you are required to cite material from practical manuals.

Students are frequently penalised for not referencing material that needs to be referenced. In most cases, this constitutes unintentional plagiarism. To avoid plagiarising, you need to reference:

  • ideas that are not your own (even if they are in your own words)
  • summarised or paraphrased examples, theories, evidence, conclusions
  • factual information, such as data
  • definitions, especially technical ones
  • visuals (e.g. tables, graphs and figures)
  • direct quotations (the actual words used by the author)

Where to reference

In cases where students have omitted a reference in their writing, it is generally a question of understanding where references are needed. In deciding where to reference, you need to consider:

  • what concepts/theories in the subject you need to demonstrate an understanding of (these need to be referenced).
  • what constitutes common or background knowledge in your subject and at your year level (this does not need to be referenced).
  • where the ideas from one source end and those from another, or your own comments, begin

If you are uncertain about any of these questions, check with your tutor or lecturer at the time the assignment is set.

The examples below from student writing show where and why references are needed in these particular assignments.

Example 1

In this sentence the student provides general background information that is relevant to a diagnosis of the patient’s problem.  No reference is needed.

As the patient works in the sales industry, it is not uncommon for women in this profession to wear unsuitable, constrictive shoes for long periods of time, placing undue stress on the lesser digits. This compressional stress leads to hypertrophy of the stratum corneum and continuous stress and concentration on a localised area develops a conical mass known as a nucleus (McCarthy, 1986).The pain she is experiencing is also not uncommon with corns. As the nucleus displaces the dermal tissues, the apex is directed towards the sensory nerve endings, resulting in the patient feeling a considerable amount of pain in the affected region (Mc Carthy, 1986).

The information in this sentence is drawn from a source and is used to support the student’s diagnosis of the patient’s problem.  This material needs to be referenced.  Similarly, the last sentence in the paragraph needs to be referenced.

From a 1st year Podiatry case report, La Trobe University, 2004

Example 2

The extract below from an essay on the financial problems from different theoretical perspectives shows how you reference when only one source is used in a particular section of your assignment.

This sentence introduces the theory that will be explained in the rest of the paragraph. As the theory is named in this sentence, a reference must be included showing the source of the information.

Social workers adopting the structural perspective on debt problems are considered to be working from a “Developmental Ideology” (Ryan & Noonan, 1999). Ryan and Noonan (1999) claim that this ideology emphasises causes within the wider social system and aims to change the system to benefit the people, rather than the people to benefit the system. Social workers working from this perspective are concerned with legislative change and confronting lending companies in order to influence them to change unfair policies regarding lending practices. Using these principles, many legal and social work groups working with clients who have debt problems are encouraging consumers to form collectives and confront those who have exploited them. It often results in media attention to bring about change in lending practices in the interest of fair trading (Ryan & Noonan, 1999).

The second sentence explicitly refers to the source of the ideas concerning the theory. Therefore, as the authors’ names are a grammatical part of the sentence, only the date is needed in brackets.

A reference is used here to make it clear that all of the implications for social workers discussed in the paragraph are from Ryan and Noonan.

From a 1st year Social Work essay, La Trobe University, 2005

Note: According to the APA Referencing system, when a source is cited more than once within a paragraph, the date does not need to be repeated if there is no confusion with other sources. However, it is a good habit to get into to always include the date with the author’s name.

Example 3

The extract below from an essay on research into the difficulties faced by nursing students shows how you reference when you draw material from more than one source in a particular section of your assignment.

This is a general sentence used to introduce the research findings that follow. No reference is needed.

Gaining confidence and competence in the clinical setting can prove challenging for nursing students. Anxiety due to the unknown and fear over lack of adequate knowledge has been reported (Cooke, 1996). Cooke’s (1996) study compared pre-clinical and post-clinical perceptions of student difficulties. Before clinics, students reported more anxiety over technical skills, and the possibility of harming patients through incompetence. Post-clinical, students felt that dealing with patients’ hygiene needs was more stressful. Students also felt anxiety over learning to communicate with ‘difficult’ patients, including dying or seriously ill patients (Cooke, 1996). A further challenge reported in the literature is communication difficulties with medical staff (Kotecki, 2002).

A reference is needed here because 'has been reported' indirectly refers to research studies. The next sentence identifies the research more explicitly, with the author's name as part of the sentence.

A reference is used here to make it clear that the finding reported in this sentence is also from the Cooke study. The next sentence also needs to be referenced as this observation is from a different study.

From a first year Information Literacy for Nurses essay, La Trobe University, 2004)

Citation styles

Citation is often used interchangeably with the ‘reference’. In your writing you can use different styles of citation, depending on what you want to focus on, as well as on stylistic considerations. Note that citation style is not the same as referencing system (See Chapter 10). There are two main citation styles, as summarised below.

Information – focussed citation

  • In an information-focussed citation, the author and date are placed at the end of the information cited in brackets. That is, they are not a grammatical part of the sentence.
  • An information-focussed citation is typically used to:
    • state established/generally-accepted facts in the field
    • indicate our current knowledge from research
    • define concepts or theories
    • summarise/make conclusions from research related to a particular problem

The following are examples of information-focussed citations taken from student writing.

Example 1

Phonological Awareness (PA) refers to an individual’s awareness of the sound structure, or phonological structure, of a spoken word (Gillon, 2004). Phonological awareness is a multilevel skill involving the manipulation of sounds and sound units within words (Muter, Hulme, Snowling, & Taylor, 1997). Such awareness can be achieved at the syllable, onset-rime or phoneme level (Gillon, 2004).

From a Masters in Speech Pathology essay, La Trobe University, 2005

In this example, the student has integrated material from a number of sources to write an extended definition of phonological awareness.

Example 2

Postnatal depression is a mental disorder that affects up to 10-15% of new mothers (Beck, 2002; Buist, 2003; Droppleman, Meighan, Thomas, & Wood, 1997; Jones & Venis, 2001; Ward, 1999). However, this form of depression can also have adverse effects on family relations, particularly with the mother’s new child and partner (Buist, 2003; Stein, cited in Ward, 1999).

From a second year Mental Health Nursing essay, La Trobe University, 2004

In the above example from an introductory section of an essay, the writer establishes what we know about postnatal depression. This type of information is typically drawn from multiple sources.

Author – focussed citation

  • In an author-focussed citation, the author’s name is a grammatical part of the sentence.
  • An author-focussed citation is typically used to:
    • highlight the contribution of a given author
    • differentiate a particular author/researcher’s ideas from those of others
    • compare and contrast different perspectives on a particular issue

The example below focusses on the strategies for coping with patient suffering identified by different authors.

Example 3

There are several strategies that may be useful to students learning to cope with patient suffering. Eifried (2003) found that students benefited from having their own private space in the clinical setting – a place for students to express their emotions and then regroup. Allcock (2001) described the need for students to discuss their emotions with supervisors and peers, and the benefits of instructors telling students that it is alright for them to cry.

From a first year Information Literacy for Nurses essay, La Trobe University, 2004

Using direct quotations

There is much confusion in student writing about the use of direct quotations. In most cases, in your writing you will reference material that you have summarised or paraphrased from your sources. It is not essential that you use direct quotations. In fact, you should use them selectively.

When you should use direct quotations

You should use direct quotations for:

  • a particularly effective, powerful or controversial statement
  • a definition or part of a definition, esp. a technical one
  • a specific term or expression created by an author
  • any of the above quoted in the source you are reading

Below are examples from student writing of effective use of direct quotations. The quoted sections powerfully and succinctly convey an idea which would be difficult to capture in a paraphrase.

Example 1

Nursing researchers argue that intuition uses processes which are “hard-wired through evolution” (Effken, 2001, p.58).

Example 2

Values are fundamental to social work practice and are defined as “the customs, standard of conduct and principles considered desirable by a culture, a group of people, or an individual” (Barker, 1995, cited in Netting, Kettner, & McMurtry, 1998, p. 329).

The following example is a poor use of a direct quotation, as the section quoted is stating a simple fact using everyday language that is unremarkable.

Example 3

It was found that families with young children were at the sharp end of homelessness in Victoria and that “nearly nine out of every ten children were aged 12 and under …” (Wilcox, 2004, p. 129).

How you should use direct quotations

Direct quotations should be integrated into your writing. That is, you need to provide a context for the quotation. This can be done in two ways:

  • as the grammatical continuation of your sentence
Example

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that “everyone has the right to seek and enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution” (Balilliet, 2003, p. 747).

  • as a complete sentence introduced by (author’s name) wrote/stated and a colon, or using as follows and a colon, e.g.
Example

Wilcox (1998) stated: Occupational therapists have proved poor at valuing the profession’s philosophical base and have failed to ….. (p. 21).

Referencing conventions related to using direct quotations are provided in Chapter 10.

Avoiding plagiarism

Paraphrasing and summarising

To avoid plagiarism, as far as possible, you should be paraphrasing and summarising ideas and information from the sources you read. When you paraphrase, you put the meaning of the original text in your own words. Note that it is generally not possible to paraphrase technical language or discipline-specific jargon.

When you summarise, you write a shortened version of the original text which contains the main points. A summary usually involves some degree of paraphrase.

Note the following points:

  • You must understand the original text completely to be able to paraphrase or summarise it.
  • A paraphrase or summary cannot change the meaning or alter the focus of the original text.
  • Paraphrased or summarised material should be integrated into your own writing. It should be consistent with the language style of the rest of the assignment.
  • Paraphrased or summarised material may be integrated into your argument through introductory/concluding statements, comments and evaluative statements.

The next page shows an extract from a Social Work essay on debt in which the writer has effectively paraphrased and summarised material from one of her sources. Extracts from the corresponding sections of the source material are provided below.

Source Material

Page 123, para. 4

The author’s own research on indebtedness (Ryan, 1989), which has previously been reported (Ryan, 1992a; Ryan, 1992b; Ryan, 1993), was based on interviews with 76 Melbourne consumer bankrupts. This study found that the typical consumer bankrupt who was a respondent in this study was likely to be aged 30 years or less and to be in a family situation (either as part of a couple or as a single parent). They were likely to be unemployed and living in rented accommodation rather than buying a house. They had an average annual income of $12,000 or less. They would not have completed secondary schooling. Such a bankrupt was far more likely to have been born in Australia rather than have immigrated.

Page 124, paras. 4-5

This study found that most respondents (60 per cent) were not employed at the time of their bankruptcy. Thirty per cent of this number could be considered to be in receipt of a welfare payment as a temporary or short-term measure, whilst for the remaining 70 per cent receiving welfare payments was a long-term situation. For this latter group, insolvency had occurred whilst in receipt of a welfare payment.

This may indicate a number of scenarios: 1) their welfare benefit was inadequate to meet their needs and wants so they entered into a consumer credit arrangement to meet these; 2) they contracted credit arrangements as pensioners and beneficiaries thinking they would be able to maintain repayments, but due to changes in circumstances, such as the illness of a child, they were unable to do so; 3) daily living expenses could not be adequately met by their income and certain repayments were forgone (particularly rent and utility costs) to meet their food costs. They would not have completed secondary schooling. Such a bankrupt was far more likely to have been born in Australia rather than have immigrated.

From Ryan, M. (1993) Inequality and low-income debtors: Towards a better deal. In P. Saunders & S. Shaver (eds.). Theory and practice in Australian social policy: Rethinking the fundamentals. (Proceedings of the National Social Policy Conference, Vol.3. Contributed papers). Sydney: Social Policy Research Centre, University of New South Wales.

The first sentence summarises the main point of Ryan’s review of the literature (pp. 121-123).

The second sentence summarises data from Ryan, p. 124, para 4.

The third sentence paraphrases the reasons for the debt of welfare recipients from Ryan, p. 124, para 5.

The last sentence summarises the main characteristics of a typical consumer bankrupt from Ryan, p. 123, para 4. and uses a direct quotation for emphasis.

Extract from student essay

Ryan (1993) makes the point that, although studies show that families with low incomes avoided using credit, or used it with caution, unforseen circumstances could drive them into debt to meet basic needs. In his 1993 study of bankrupts, Ryan noted that 60% of those who were bankrupt because of debt issues were welfare recipients. He listed three reasons welfare recipients would have gone into debt: 1) their benefit was inadequate to meet their needs and wants and so they went into debt to meet these needs; 2) they entered into credit arrangements thinking they could make payments but then their circumstances changed; and 3) their benefit could not adequately provide for their daily needs, therefore, they failed to meet certain payments so they could buy food. Ryan (1993) went on to say that the average Melbournian consumer bankrupt was “likely to be unemployed and living in rented accommodation” (p. 123), earned less than $12,000 a year, and did not finish secondary school.

From a second year Social Work essay, La Trobe University, 2005

Helpful tips from La Trobe University Public Health Librarians

The La Trobe University librarians receive many queries from students who are uncertain about where citing sources ends and plagiarism begins. They have suggested the following websites as particularly helpful:

Further reading

La Trobe University learning website at http://www.latrobe.edu.au/learning Student Learning

Marshall, L., & Rowland, F. (2006). A Guide to Learning Independently. (4th ed.). Sydney: Pearson Education.

Wallace, M.J. (2002). Study Skills in English. (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.