Chapter 5

Spoken and Written Communication Skills

Introduction

Our use of language in written and spoken forms is one of the most important ways by which we can communicate our understanding, gather new information, participate in the academic and professional world, and interact socially. In academic studies, written English is particularly important. Ways of communicating in different subject areas must be mastered, and the language must be appropriate.

Spoken and written communication

In both professional and social settings, we adapt our language according to the situation. As users of English, or any other language, we develop an understanding of what is accepted as culturally appropriate language and behaviour. The central element of all spoken and written communication is context: what the purpose of the communication is and who the participants are. The questions listed below show the importance of context in determining how the communication takes place.

Purpose

In most cases, communication fulfils a number of different functions. However, the speaker/writer always has an over-riding objective. For example, is the intention of the speaker/writer to:

present a point of view?
critique a theory or argument?
report research findings?
evaluate evidence from research?
disseminate information?
negotiate an arrangement?
promote a policy/service?
complain about a product/service?

Participants

The relationship between the speaker-listener/s and writer-reader/s and the situation affects the type of language and level of formality used. For example, is the relationship one of:

health care professional and client/patient?
colleagues in a professional setting?
school teacher and parent?
colleagues in a social setting?

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Formal and informal language

Language exists on a continuum from formal to informal. Context affects the level of formality of the language we use. Examples of communication at the informal end of the continuum are face-to-face and telephone conversations and e-mails, for instance, with peers. At the informal end are lectures, speeches, research reports and academic essays. However, in most types of communication, we used a combination of more and less formal language. The table below contrasts the main features of each.

Formal and informal language
Informal	Formal
Phrasal verbs (verb + preposition) e.g. look at, hand in	Single verbs e.g. investigate, consider, observe; submit
Informal vocabulary e.g. get bigger, got, a lot	Formal vocabulary e.g. increase, obtained, considerable
Active voice e.g. Researchers developed a new vaccine.	Passive voice e.g. A new vaccine was developed.
Uses personal pronouns e.g. You can see the results in Figure 1. (active voice)	Avoids personal pronouns e.g. The results can be seen/are shown in Figure 1. (passive voice)
Contracted forms e.g. haven’t, fridge, ‘cos	Full forms e.g. have not, refrigerator, because
Slang e.g. whinge, bucks	Standard words/expressions e.g. complain, dollars
Abbreviations e.g. i.e., ASAP	Full words/expressions e.g. that is, as soon as possible
Informal greeting e.g. Cheers, Regards	More formal greeting e.g. (Yours) Sincerely

Note that both active and passive voice are used in informal as well as formal styles of communication. However, the passive voice is more frequently used in formal writing, for example a research report, as it more effectively communicates the writer’s intention and, at the same time, it sounds more impersonal.

General characteristics of academic writing

There is no one single style of academic writing. Writing in different subjects involves understanding the culture of a particular discipline and the way language is used to construct knowledge. However, there are some characteristics of academic writing which are common to all subject areas. These are summarised below.

use sources to develop and support your argument: An academic essay needs to present your own original work. However, for your essay to be credible, you need to draw on ideas and evidence from a range of appropriate sources. You develop your argument by integrating ideas and evidence from the literature. All material drawn from sources you read should include a citation in brackets within or at the end of the sentence (See Chapter 9).
use examples to support your claims: In developing your argument, you should avoid vagueness and overuse of generalisation. General statements about claims you make should be supported by evidence and examples and should be correctly cited (See Chapter 10).
be clear and concise You need to:

eliminate sentences and paragraphs not directly relevant to the essay question
reword sentences so that your message is conveyed as simply as possible
avoid overuse of the pronouns “this” and “it” in the same sentence or paragraph to limit the possibility of confusion or ambiguity. Make sure each time you use these words, that what they are referring to is very clear.
replace clichéd expressions with simple prepositions or conjunctions, e.g. “although”, rather than “despite the fact that”; and “now”, rather than “at the present time”
check that you have used punctuation correctly. In particular, misuse of commas can result in confused writing.

use a formal writing style: An academic essay is an example of formal written communication. You should, therefore, avoid conversational English and wordy expression (See page 9).
include a References list: You need to provide detailed and accurate bibliographical information about all the sources used in your writing at the end of the essay listed alphabetically (See Chapter 10).

While all subject areas require assignments to be written in a formal style, there may be differences in the degree to which features of informal style can be used. For instance, in a Social Work assignment involving personal reflection, a greater use of personal pronouns may be acceptable. Furthermore, different types of assignment may involve a greater use of certain grammatical structures. For example, in the Methods section of a thesis or prac. report, the passive voice is the most commonly used sentence type. If in doubt, check your subject guide or speak to the lecturer.

Improving your written communication skills

Use good general and technical dictionaries efficiently

You can learn a lot about language from your dictionary. The first few pages explain the symbols used; these will alert you to the kind of things dictionaries can teach. In addition to grammatical information, many current dictionaries provide information about differences in usage between spoken and written language, as well as groups of synonyms. Dictionaries are also very useful for checking your spelling and will explain possible variations, for example, where there are differences between American English on the one hand, and British and Australian English on the other.

Consult a writing guide

Writing guides generally cover all aspects of academic writing, including basic principles about writing style, grammar, sentence structure, vocabulary choice, and good paragraphing. Some writing guides are designed for writing in specific disciplines. See the Further Reading section for suggestions.

Use a grammar check with caution

Computer grammar checks are intended for writing for a range of everyday purposes. They are, therefore, not always very useful for academic writing. For example, grammar checks, particularly those based on American English, do not accept a passive sentence as grammatical and will suggest that you change it to an active sentence. However, in academic writing, there are many instances in which you will need to use a passive sentence. Moreover, grammar checks are not entirely reliable: they frequently miss grammatical mistakes, or underline correct sentences as ungrammatical. To get the most out of computer grammar checks, you need to have some knowledge of English grammar. When you are uncertain about suggestions made, consult a grammar book. See the Further Reading section for suggestions.

Use a thesaurus with caution

Many students consult the thesaurus on their computer when attempting to paraphrase material from sources they read. However, you should check the meaning of the synonym you have selected in a good dictionary. Although it may be a synonym, it may not be appropriate in the context in which you want to use it. In other words, synonyms often differ in usage.

Seek assistance

Chapter 1 of this handbook provides information about academic skills support for students in the Faculty at all campuses of La Trobe University. If you need advice on different aspects of planning and presenting written assignments, make an appointment with the relevant Adviser.

Recommended English language dictionaries

Concise Oxford English Dictionary
Oxford Australian English Dictionary
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
Macquarie Dictionary

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