Study Skills Scheme

About the Scheme

Advisers

Handbook (online Version)

Seminars

Rights and Responsibilities

Study Skills Scheme

Study Skills Scheme Web Page

www.latrobe.edu.au/sss/

Study Skills Scheme Noticeboard

Faculty Office, Health Sciences 1, Level 2

Telephone: 03 9479 3583

 

Target your study skills: Optimise your learning written (Chapters 2-7, 9-10, 13), edited and formatted by Mara Pavlidis, Language and Academic Skills Adviser, Study Skills Scheme

Acknowledgement to Jane McCooey, SSS Co-ordinator, for her assistance in updating information and providing valuable feedback on draft chapters. Acknowledgement is also made of contributions from Jane McCooey (Chapters 2 and 3) and Rod Green (Chapter 2) from the School of Human Biosciences.

Thank you to the following students who contributed assignments: Amy Beare, Renee Codd, Alexandra Hodgson, Melissa Knoll, Lucy Ossa-Bordes, and Alison Weedon.

Thank you also to the following staff for recommending examples of student writing in their subjects: Associate Professor Christine Bigby and Ms Cathy Dowden (Social Work and Social Policy), Dr Bill Koch and Mr Alan Robins (Nursing and Midwifery), and Ms Tanya Serry (Human Communication Sciences). Thanks are also due to Ms Jenny Corbin (Health Sciences Librarian, La Trobe University Library) for her contribution to sections on library services and referencing.

Acknowledgement to Associate Professor Martin Ryan, Social Work and Social Policy, for permission to reproduce extracts from his 1993 paper. Thank you also to Penny Little (pennylittlePBL@bigpond.com) for permission to reproduce material related to Enquiry-based Learning.

Contributing authors to earlier editions: Rebecca Allen, Jacqui Behan, Dawn Best, Heather Bond, Pamela Champion, Lorraine Devlin, Lorraine Devitt, Helen Edwards, Louise Farnworth, Robyn Hayes, Helen Forbes, Primrose Lentin, Felicity Prentice, and Michael Wilson.

©2009: Faculty of Health Sciences, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia

Content

• Acknowledgement
• Index
• Chapter 1 - Faculty of Health Sciences Learning Support
• Chapter 2 - Studying at University
• Chapter 3 - Planning your Study Time
• Chapter 4 - Effective Reading Strategies
• Chapter 5 - Spoken and Written Communication Skills
• Chapter 6 - Oral Presentations
• Chapter 7 - Planning and Writing your Essay
• Chapter 8 - Writing a Literature Review
• Chapter 9 - Referencing – An Overview
• Chapter 10 - Referencing –A Guide to the APA System
• Chapter 11 - Exam Strategies
• Chapter 12 - Preparing for the Clinical Experience
• Chapter 13 - Enquiry-Based Learning for Health Professionals

Chapter 1

Learning Support

Albury-Wodonga campus

Academic Skills Unit

This Unit provides support for students from all faculties on the campus. This unit is located in room 4240. Students can make an appointment to see an adviser either in person at the Academic Skills Unit or by telephone (02 6024 9772).

The English Language Unit (ESL), offers academic skills and English language development for students with English as their second language. Students can make an appointment by phone, email or in person. Room 4237, phone 0260 249774, esl.aw@latrobe.edu.au

Bendigo campus

The Academic Skills Unit

This Unit provides support for students from all faculties on the campus. The Unit is located in the Student Support Services corridor (near the Circular Lecture Theatre). Students can make an appointment to see an ASU lecturer at Reception, Student Support Services (Tel: 5444 7223 or email: ben-academicskills@latrobe.edu.au), or can attend Open Access sessions: Mon-Thurs 3-5pm in Room 2.14 (opposite the Medical Centre).

Bundoora campus

The Study Skills Scheme (SSS)

The SSS is for the benefit of all students in the Faculty of Health Sciences studying at the Bundoora Campus. The areas in which advice and assistance may be sought include:

• general study skills (e.g. effective listening and reading skills, note-taking)
• planning and presenting specific written assignments, oral presentations and research seminars
• specific course requirements (e.g. learning in anatomy and clinics)
• advanced writing and research skills, thesis writing/writing for publication

Individual consultations can be arranged with a Study Skills Adviser. Brochures listing Advisers' contact details are available from the SSS noticeboard, beside the Reception window, Faculty Office, Health Sciences 1, level 2.

Lunchtime seminars conducted by Advisers are offered on a range of study topics, including getting the most out of lectures; essay writing; and referencing. The ‘Lunchtime Seminar Programme’ is available at the start of each Semester on the WEB at www.latrobe.edu.au/sss/ and from the SSS noticeboard.

Further information about the SSS is provided in the brochure ‘About the Scheme’, available at the SSS noticeboard, and from the SSS WEB page. For general enquiries about SSS, contact the Faculty Office Reception on (03) 9479 3583.

Please be advised that the seminarlunchtime seminar program for Semester 1, 2009 will be available soon.

Health Sciences students studying subjects in other faculties can find information about the Academic Skills Unit in the relevant faculty at http://www.latrobe.edu.au/learning/lasunits La Trobe Academic Skills Unit

English as a Second Language

The Language and Academic Skills (English as a Second Language) Unit (the LASESL Unit) assists undergraduate and postgraduate students who use English as a second language to develop your language and academic skills. The LASESL Unit offers:

• individual appointments of 30-60 mins. for students to discuss your work
• workshops during Orientation and during the semester
• two credit units for ESL students that, with Faculty approval, can contribute towards your degree
• undergraduate and postgraduate ESL subjects which contribute towards a degree
• the Orientation to Research program for postgraduate research ESL students

LASESL Unit is located in Humanities 3, Room 417. Telephone (03) 9479 2788 or e-mail: lasesl@latrobe.edu.au Web site: LASESL Unit http://www.latrobe.edu.au/lasesl

City campus

For help with your essay or thesis, see Brigid McCoppin, Room 2.28 on the second floor. Telephone (03) 9285 5165, or e-mail B.McCoppin@latrobe.edu.au.

Mildura campus

Nalenie Ramjaun, the Language and Academic Skills Lecturer, provides study skills assistance to all students at the campus. Nalenie’s office is located in the Brian Grogan Building, Room 123. She can be contacted by telephone (03 5051 4017) or e-mail n.gungadurdoss-ramjaun@latrobe.edu.au.

Shepparton campus

Iris Perkins, in the library, offers academic skills support to all students studying at the campus. Contact Iris by telephone (03 5833 2640) or email i.perkins@latrobe.edu.au to make an appointment.

Resources

A range of publications on study skills and related matters exists in the La Trobe Library network. Individual Language and Academic Skills Units also provide resources. See Student Learning www.latrobe.edu.au/learning.

Chapter 2

Introduction

Transition to university involves understanding and adapting to different expectations and a different learning environment. This chapter provides an overview of the main differences between university study and studying at school, the key elements of study in Health Sciences, how to learn from lectures, and tips on research and library skills. Study skills in particular areas of university study, such as reading and writing for assignments, will be covered in subsequent chapters. These study skills underpin the graduate attributes you will develop through your studies in Health Sciences which are required for work in your chosen field and the changing environment of health care provision.

Studying at university

Studying at university involves learning new ways of thinking, reading, writing and learning how to learn. The table below summarises some of the main differences between study at school and study at university.

Differences between studying at school and university

Studying at school	Studying at university
Responsibility for learning learning directed and monitored   by teacher homework set by teacher	need to set your own goals, and plan and evaluate your learning
Reading reading from textbook/prescribed texts reading guided by teacher and/or focus questions/models	some reading from textbook required for each lecture wide reading required for written assignments critical approach to reading essential
Writing use of a single source, or limited range of sources in written assignments feedback from teacher on drafts limited use of referencing	requires extensive research analytical approach essential referencing essential mastery of referencing system conventions essential feedback on completed assignments
Time management learning structured by school timetable and homework set	need to plan and manage your own time need to manage a heavy workload

A study cycle in Health Sciences

The components of the traditional study cycle in Health Sciences and their interrelationships are illustrated below. Each of these areas is discussed in more detail in later chapters. Chapter 13 provides an overview of the learning cycle in Enquiry-based Learning.

A study cycle in helath sciences

Success in university study depends on your ability to manage the cycle of activities illustrated above and to adopt an active, critical and reflective approach to your study, which results in deep learning. In contrast, surface learning is an approach to learning that is passive and mechanistic, where you memorise rather than understand. Approaches to learning will be discussed in more detail in the next section.

Approaches to learning

Deep and surface learning

As illustrated in the previous section, an active and reflective approach to your studies is associated with deep learning. The table below compares and contrasts deep and surface learning.

Comparison of deep and surface learning

Deep learning	Surface learning
Student’s intention is to understand.	Student’s intention is to complete task requirements.
The approach involves vigorous interaction with content.	The approach involves rote learning and memorising information needed for assessment.
Student relates new ideas and concepts to previous knowledge and real world experiences.	Student fails to distinguish principles from practice.
Student is able to link specific information to the ‘big picture’.	Student focusses on discrete elements without integrating knowledge.
This approach has a positive effect on long-term memory and ability to make use of learning.	This approach has a poor effect on long-term memory and understanding of concepts.

Learning strategies for Human Biosciences

What are Human Biosciences?

The School of Human Biosciences at La Trobe University teaches a variety of disciplines to students in the Faculty of Health Sciences. These disciplines include anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology and biomechanics. These disciplines provide foundation knowledge that underpins the professional courses offered by the Faculty of Health Sciences.

The Human Bioscience disciplines will also introduce you to a whole new vocabulary (medical terminology, often based on Latin derivations) which has to be learnt and used with precision and which can then be used in communication with health professionals of all types.

The amount of knowledge associated with each of these disciplines can be substantial. As a graduate of the Faculty of Health Sciences, you will not be expected to understand the full breadth and depth of these disciplines. However, you will need to understand the general principles related to each discipline so that you can apply your knowledge to particular circumstances to fully appreciate the basis of a particular health or disease condition. The information in this section should help you to adopt learning strategies that will assist your understanding of the general principles of the human biosciences.

Learning strategies to encourage deep learning in Human Biosciences

You will have a variety of different teaching modes in Human Biosciences units, including: lectures, practicals, tutorials, and on-line activities. Information delivered in lectures is reinforced and elaborated on in practicals and tutorials, so active participation in all scheduled classes is necessary to develop a deep understanding of Human Biosciences content.

The advantages of adopting deep learning strategies have been outlined in the previous section of this chapter. The learning strategies listed below are suggestions that will facilitate deep learning of your Human Biosciences content.

Learning strategy 1: Complete the learning objectives

A set of learning objectives (also known as review questions, study questions, and so on) is typically provided for each component of a unit. The aim of the objectives is to give you an outline of the information you need to acquire and to give you some idea of the depth of knowledge required in these areas.

Review each lecture as soon as possible. Then complete learning objectives after you have completed all classes (lectures, practicals and tutorials) in each topic of a unit. It is suggested that you use the 3-stage procedure below.

Learning strategy 2: “Talk the talk”

• Participate in all classes and tutorials. Full participation will require some preparation for each class.
• Ask questions as they arise so that the answers given are in the context of current topics. Be prepared to be wrong. It is better to find out that you do not understand in a tutorial than in an exam!
• Articulate your study with others by:
  • working with a small study group of like minded students
  • completing learning objectives verbally in your group
  • interacting with other students enrolled in your unit in WebCT discussion

Learning strategy 3: Relate the content in an excellent way of making the information relevant.

For example, in surface anatomy:

• perform movements
• palpate landmarks
• draw the course of nerves/vessels

Learning strategy 4: Utilize resources

• The Unit manual is the best guide to the breadth and depth of knowledge required for your units as it is specifically written for your unit.
• The prescribed text and other references have not been specifically written for your unit but are useful sources of information. Avoid reading whole chapters: the textbook covers more that you are expected to cover.
• Seek advice and feedback on your understanding from lecturers, tutors, and other students.
• WebCT sites provide a variety of unit specific and general resources and links to useful web-based resources.
• Library, including audio-visual resources and past exam papers on-line.
• Anatomy resource room.
• Computer-based resources.

Learning strategy 5: Make visual aids to learning

Visual aids to learning include concept maps, flow charts and “home made” diagrams. These can be a particularly useful method of learning Human Bioscience content.

Using concept maps as a learning tool

A useful tool for deep learning is concept mapping. Concept maps organise your thinking in a logical, hierarchical way. They can also highlight gaps in your knowledge, which may then require further reading and re-thinking of the topic.

Below are two examples of concept maps based on the text ‘What is cancer? Compare the differences between them.

What is cancer?

Cancer is a disease of the body's cells. Normally the body's cells divide to make new cells in an orderly way, allowing the body to grow, and to heal after injury. Occasionally, however, some cells behave abnormally. They divide in an uncontrolled way, and they may grow into a lump which is called a tumour. Tumours can be benign (not a cancer) or malignant (a cancer). Benign tumours do not spread to other parts of the body. A malignant tumour is made up of cancer cells. If not treated, these cells will continue to increase, and may invade and destroy surrounding tissues.

Concept map 1

Concept map 1

Concept map 1 shows that the reader has processed the text in a linear fashion and understood the key concept to be ‘cancer’. As a result, the various components of the concept are represented in the map in the order in which they are mentioned in the text. The reader has not understood how the pieces of information are connected and, therefore, the map is incorrect.

Concept map 2

Concept map 2

Unlike Concept map 1, this concept map shows that the reader has correctly understood the links between cancer, tumours and cell division and has, therefore, identified the hierarchy of information in the text. Thus, the links between the pieces of information will be correctly represented in the concept map.

The above examples of concept maps highlight two important points about studying at university: firstly, the difference between surface and deep approaches to learning and, secondly, the usefulness of using diagrams as a tool in understanding course content and evaluating your learning.

Getting the most out of lectures

Lectures are an integral part of a subject and are directly linked to assessment. To gain the maximum benefit from lectures, you need to understand why lectures are important and how you can actively learn from them.

The purpose of a lecture

A lecture may have a number of different purposes, the most important being to:

• make you think critically about the subject
• indicate the scope of the subject
• guide your thinking about a specific topic
• relate new work to your previous knowledge
• answer your questions
• serve as a starting point for private study

How to get the most out of a lecture

To get the most out of a lecture, you need to follow a procedure that involves preparation, listening to the lecture and consolidation. This procedure is outlined below.

Before the lecture, you should:

• do some of the suggested/required reading
• read through lecture summaries you have downloaded, highlight key points, and write down any questions you have
• review past lecture notes and think about how the topic relates to past lectures
• get to the lecture on time so you can benefit from the overview in the lecture introduction

During the lecture, you should:

• listen more than you write – do not expect to take down everything that is said
• listen actively – concentrate on what is said, ask yourself questions about what the lecturer is saying
• be selective about what you write down
• underline/highlight what is important
• summarise visuals rather than describe what they represent
• evaluate whether the questions you had before the lecture have been answered

After the lecture, you should:

• review your notes as soon as possible after the lecture – think about how the lecture links with what you already know about the topic
• check that you understand everything that you’ve written – if necessary, edit your notes so that they are a more accurate record of what the lecture was about and that they read more easily
• make a summary of your notes in diagrammatic form (e.g. concept maps, flow chart) – file away with other notes/reading materials for revision purposes

Taking lecture notes

Lecture notes are aids for your private use. You should, therefore, use a method of note-taking that suits your purposes. The most commonly used notes are linear notes, that is, notes that follow the order in which the lecture content was presented. However, some lectures may be better suited to other forms of note-taking, for example, a tree diagram.

Good lecture notes:

• are a record of how the lecture increased your knowledge of the topic
• are intelligible and meaningful to you
• are concise and written in point form
• are clearly set out
• have continuity
• accurately reflect the main points of the lecture
• include some examples
• include your comments and questions

Research skills

As noted earlier in this chapter, writing assignments at university involves substantial research. Moreover, an assignment that is well-researched is more likely to be well-written than one that is superficially researched. Good research skills refers to: identifying sources relevant to the assignment topic; selecting material from your sources that specifically addresses the question or problem set; and using quality sources.

To improve your research skills:

• familiarise yourself with the library services available
• allow sufficient time for research
• remain focussed on the assignment topic
• keep accurate and complete records of all sources you read
• be selective about the sources you use, in particular with regard to internet sources
  • electronic sources appropriate for academic writing include: refereed journal articles (that is, articles from academic journals that undergo a rigorous process of peer review before they are published); government reports; documents on government department websites; websites of research organisations, such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics
  • electronic sources not appropriate for academic writing include: websites of companies or individual

Further advice on using sources for assignments is provided in Chapter 9.

Library skills

The library contains a wealth of information. One of the most important skills that you will develop as a student is how to use the resources that the library offers effectively. Visiting the library home page is a good place to start: LaTrobe Libray home page www.lib.latrobe.edu.au.

Library tours

The library staff conduct walking tours at the beginning of each semester. These tours will help you to find your way around the library, and are the first step to becoming familiar with library resources and services. Information about these tours is available from the library.

Throughout each year, the library staff conduct a series of classes aimed at increasing your library skills. Visit the library regularly to see what classes are coming up. At the beginning of each semester, there are classes on how to use the library catalogue: this skill is the second step in developing your library skills. As the year progresses, your lecturers may organise for you to attend classes on more advanced skills. To book into either a library walking tour or catalogue workshop go to: Library walking tour or Catelogue workshop http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/training/ See contact link below if sessions at your campus are not listed.

If you have missed the library tours/sessions at the beginning of semester, see On-line Library Training and Library Podcasts below for self-guided options at any time.

If you have further queries about library training, contact the staff at your campus library: Library contacts http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/contacts/index.php.

On-line library training

Health Sciences Information Literacy Skills Module

Access is available at any time for health sciences specific training in how to use the library and find scholarly material for your study. Information Literacy Health Sciences Intro http://latrobe.libguides.com/health_sci.

General Library Skills Online Tutorials

Tutorials can be accessed at any time for more general training (multidisciplinary) in library searching skills. Library skills online www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/libskills/

Library podcasts

The library also offers a podcast series to help students find information they need for their study. These can be downloaded onto iPod or portable MP3 player, or they can be listened to online. For further information or to subscribe, go to: Library Podcasts http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/podcasts/

Further reading

La Trobe University learning website at http://www.latrobe.edu.au/learning Student Learning

Marshall, L.,& Rowland, F. (2006). A guide to learning independently (4th ed.). Sydney: Pearson Education.

Turner, K., Ireland, L., Krenus, B., & Pointon, L. (2008). Reading for academic purposes. In Essential academic skills (pp. 31-58). Sydney, N.S.W.: Oxford University Press.

Wallace, M.J. (2002). Study skills in English. (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Planning Your Study Time

Introduction

This chapter provides tips on how to plan and manage your study time. It emphasises the importance of being organised and using your time efficiently and effectively. In addition, it demonstrates why you need to be aware of and reflect on your approach to study, your habits and attitude to be able to take responsibility for your own learning.

Planning your study

Planning all aspects of your study is essential to meet the demands of coursework. Careful planning allows you to identify and monitor what needs to be done, what has been done and how well it has been done. Your study plan should encompass both formal classes and private study, as suggested below.

Plan a weekly timetable

Plan a 24-hour, 7-day a week timetable using your diary. This should include:

• formal classes
• private study
• part-time work
• regular chores
• relaxation and socialising
• travelling time

Plan your private study

When planning your private study time, you should:

• allocate equal time to all subjects you are studying. You may need to adjust this later to reflect changing workloads, and the relative difficulty of topics/units.
• include time for reviewing lecture notes and making summaries of reading/lecture notes.
• allow a free block of time each day for unexpected things that come up, for example, computer problems.
• be realistic. Do not make a timetable that is not practical in your situation.

Plan the semester

Using your Year Planner, you should:

• mark in on-going assessment and the due dates for assignments
• mark in key stages of assignments, for example, researching the topic or where a preliminary critical review is required
• note dates for clinical/professional placements
• note other significant dates, for example, job commitments

Managing your time

A carefully planned study timetable is only the starting point. How useful your study plan is will depend on your ability to manage your time and use your time efficiently. The following tips highlight the need to use your time efficiently, to be a reflective learner, and to take advantage of ‘incidental’ time, such as time between classes, travelling time, and time spent on daily chores.

Formal classes

• Be an active learner: Do some preparatory reading for all lectures; do the required preparation for tutorials, pracs and clinics; come to class with questions; at the end of the class, think about which questions were answered, and which need follow-up.
• Make summaries, for example in bullet points, tables or diagrams, of lecture notes and reading. These will assist your understanding and on-going revision.
• Link: Make diagrams or flow charts to show how topics in the subject are connected to help you get the ‘big picture’.
• Be organised: Arrive at classes on time; label clearly and file all handouts and notes for easy access during revision; start reading early for assignments.
• Evaluate your learning: Think about how you can improve strategies, for example, in preparing for lectures or lecture note-taking.

Private study

• Study environment: As far as possible, your study environment should be quiet, free from distractions, and comfortable, for example, have a good source of light.
• Organise your time: Break up study time into blocks, for example, of one hour allocated to individual subjects; set a time limit for all tasks you want to complete.
• Be focussed: Set objectives for all tasks you undertake; ask yourself what you want to achieve by the end of that time block.
• Prioritise: Make a checklist of the main tasks you want to complete, with those at the top of the list being the most important.
• Be an active learner: Think critically about what you are reading or writing; set problem-solving tasks; make summaries; formulate questions; practise explaining the material to yourself.
• Maintain concentration: Vary tasks if possible; take short breaks at regular intervals, for example, every 50 minutes; move on to another task if you feel concentration is waning.
• Evaluate your learning: To monitor your own learning, you should:
  • check whether or not you have met your objectives for the session.
  • evaluate how effective the objectives you set yourself were and whether the time you allocated to particular topics/subjects was appropriate.
  • cross off tasks on the checklist you have completed.
  • plan when and how you will complete outstanding tasks.
  • make summaries of reading/lecture notes to check your understanding.
  • ask yourself how you can improve strategies that do not work, for example, your approach to reading.

‘Incidental’ time

To be an efficient learner, you should take an advantage of ‘incidental’ time, or time that is not part of planned/structured study time. This may involve spending no more than several minutes thinking about and connecting aspects of your course. This is also a good time for making a mental check of how your study plan for the day/week is going. The following are some suggestions for good use of incidental time.

• Link: Think about how the previous lecture connects with this lecture; how the tutorial/prac. reinforced concepts introduced in the lecture.
• Re-prioritise: If necessary, make changes to your original list of priorities you set for the day/week; decide when and how you will do any outstanding tasks.
• Evaluate your learning: Think about the learning strategies you use. Ask yourself which strategies work and which do not? Which strategies worked in one subject, but not in another? Which strategies did not work in Semester 1, but are working in Semester 2? Why?

Understanding yourself

To be able to plan and use your study time effectively, it is important that you are aware of your learning style, and your habits and attitude more generally. You need to take advantage of and build on your strengths, while at the same time you address your weaknesses and develop other ways of learning and doing. Some of the questions you might ask yourself are listed below.

Learning style

• Do you work best in the morning/evening?
• Do you have a short/long concentration span?
• Are you a visual learner/aural learner?
• Do you learn from examples (deductive learning) of from principles (inductive learning)?
• How do you learn new material presented in class, for example, by re-organising the information, representing it diagrammatically, explaining it to someone, trying to memorise it, applying it to a real-world situation?

Attitude and approach

• Do you do things at the last minute/plan ahead of time?
• Are you organised/disorganised?
• Are you fairly relaxed/easily stressed?
• Are you a perfectionist?
• Are your expectations of yourself high/not high enough?
• Are you good at thinking on your feet and making quick decisions?
• Do you procrastinate, especially when faced with a difficult task or decision?

Further reading

La Trobe University Counselling Service Study Skills at: http://www.latrobe.edu.au/lcounselling/groups.htm#study Follow the links to ‘Study Timetables; Goal Setting; Planning and Prioritising’

La Trobe University learning website at http://www.latrobe.edu.au/learning Student Learning

Marshall, L., & Rowland, F. (2006) A guide to learning independently. (4th ed.). Sydney: Pearson Education.

Chapter 4

Effective Reading Strategies

Introduction

Reading is an active process which involves making predictions based on your prior experience, checking your understanding, and asking yourself questions. In our daily life, our purposes for reading vary, and so, too, do the ways in which we read. The key to being an effective reader is adapting your reading techniques to your purpose. In this chapter, different reading strategies are discussed and applied to the main aspects of your reading at university: reading for lectures, reading for assignments and revision reading. The chapter also provides tips on effective note-taking methods.

Purposes of academic reading

The main purposes of academic reading are to:

• prepare for lectures, tutorials and pracs.
• answer assignment and essay questions.
• follow up important ideas discussed in lectures, tutorials, pracs and clinics.

Reading techniques

Skimming

Skimming is the technique you use to get the general idea of a text or to get an overview of the line of argument the author is presenting. Skimming involves reading rapidly without focussing on specific information or taking in every word.

Skimming is useful to:

• get a general understanding of the content of a text.
• locate a section of a chapter/article to read in detail, for example, as preparation for a lecture or tutorial, or to answer an assignment question.

To get the most out of skimming, you should:

• use titles and headings to anticipate the contents of a text.
• use the first sentence of each paragraph to help you get an overview of that paragraph.
• look at diagrams, tables and figures, as these summarise the content of large slabs of text.

Scanning

You scan a text when you want to locate specific information. Scanning involves reading rapidly while you focus on content words (key words in definitions) rather than grammatical words (e.g. prepositions, pronouns). You use this technique when you want to locate, for example:

• specific material in a book/chapter by using headings, sub-headings and key words.
• aspects of a research study, for example, aims of the study, hypotheses, results, conclusions.
• key words, a definition, data.

Note that skimming and scanning are used in combination to help you identify material you want to read in detail.

In-depth reading

When reading for a thorough understanding of a text, first read it for an overview. In-depth reading does not mean that you laboriously read every page word by word, but that you read actively and critically. For example, when reading a journal article, you need to identify the rationale for and aims of the research, how and why particular results were obtained, and the conclusions drawn from the results.

In-depth reading enables you to:

• get a detailed understanding of a structure, process, theory, or experimental method.
• critically evaluate research (methods, results, conclusions) or the author’s argument.
• identify implications of theory or research for professional practice.

Whatever the purpose of academic reading, to read effectively, you need to:

Reading for lectures and tutorials: Reading your textbook

The textbooks you use in a particular unit complement the information presented in lectures. In some units, reading beyond the textbook will be expected. Much of your textbook reading will involve understanding and learning the concepts and theories in the unit you are expected to have mastery over.

Familiarising yourself with your textbook

At the beginning of the course, you should familiarise yourself with the structure of your textbook by:

• skimming through the table of contents so that you are clear about the textbook’s scope and format.
• reading the “Notes to Students” (or equivalent) section at the front of the book.
• looking quickly through a chapter to locate chapter summary or overview, and problems or exercises to see how these are related to the content of the chapter.

Reading your textbook actively

Below is a suggested procedure for active and efficient reading of your textbook.

Clearly, you will not have time to follow the procedure suggested above for all readings for all lectures. Moreover, you may feel it unnecessary to complete all steps, or even always in that order. However, to get the most out of lectures, at the very least, you should aim to complete Steps 1-4 before the lecture/tutorial. This can then be followed up with in-depth reading after the lecture/tutorial.

Reading for assignments and essays

Focussing your reading

As pointed out in Chapter 2, reading for assignments requires substantial research to locate quality and relevant sources. As soon as you know your assignment question or topic, critically analyse what it entails and identify key issues which are relevant. Brainstorm and note down your initial ideas in a linear fashion, or as a ‘mind map’ (branching notes) (See Chapter 7). Mind maps are one way of guiding your literature search and teasing out some focus questions for your reading. They are also a useful way of thinking about how issues are related and how you might organise material for your assignment.

Reading critically

Reading for assignments also involves a critical and interpretative approach. When you read a range of books and journal articles to answer the assignment question, the aim is not simply to look for and obtain information. Critical and interpretative reading involves, for example:

• establishing the author’s purpose for writing
• establishing the context (e.g. where and when) the author is writing about and its relevance to your argument/the Australian context
• analysing the values underpinning the author’s argument
• identifying unbalanced view or bias
• critically analysing the issues discussed
• identifying areas of agreement and disagreement in evidence or opinions
• identifying manipulation of research evidence
• assessing the validity of arguments presented, evidence or conclusions
• identifying implications for professional practice
• identifying gaps in the literature

To use your research time effectively and to ensure that you are reading actively and critically, use the points below to help you formulate questions for your reading. For example:

• Why am I reading this article? What question/s do I hope to answer? How is this related to the assignment topic?
• What does the title and abstract (or introduction) tell me?
• Who is the author, when was this written, and in what context?
• How does the author support his/her arguments?
• How does this viewpoint compare with another?

Taking note from sources

Taking notes may help you to:

• understand the material and identify major points
• gather evidence to support your own ideas through quotes and appropriately cited paraphrasing
• avoid plagiarism
• remember what you read
• highlight an area for further investigation

Note-taking techniques

There is a variety of approaches to taking notes from your reading. However, as with reading, it is important to understand your purpose in note-taking. As far as possible, you should re-think and re-formulate what you have just read and try to express it in your own words.

When you make notes, try to organise your material in ways that suit your purpose in note-taking and the type of material you are summarising/note-taking. You should not necessarily use the headings used in the book or article, as this was not written with your assignment topic in mind. Organising your material in this way will ensure that in your research, and subsequently your writing, you will be focussed on the assignment topic. Examples of note-taking methods are as follows:

• Linear notes - using heading, sub-headings, and bullet points
• Branching notes – to show the hierarchy of ideas and their interrelationships
• Tables – a static summary, useful for summarising quantitative data, or listing names of components and their features/functions
• Concept maps and flow charts – a dynamic summary, useful for summarising a structure/process

The concept map below illustrates one way of summarising the main points made in this chapter about critical reading.

Critical reading concept map

As you make notes from your reading, you may add your own comments while they are still fresh in your mind. However, you need to ensure that in your notes, as in the assignment, you distinguish between the ideas of others and your own. When you have completed all your reading, you may need to refine/summarise the notes you took from each source further to make them easier to access at a later stage.

How to avoid plagiarism

Further reading

Burdess, N. (1998). The handbook of student skills for the social sciences and humanities. (2nd ed.). Sydney; New York: Prentice Hall.

Glendinning, E. (1992). Study reading: A course in reading skills for academic purposes. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

La Trobe University learning website at http://www.latrobe.edu.au/learning Student Learning

Marshall, L., & Rowland, F. (2006) A guide to learning independently (4th ed.). Sydney: Pearson Education.

McWhorter, K. (2001). College reading and study skills. (8th ed.). New York: Longman.

Wallace, M.J. (2002). Study skills in English. (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter 5

Spoken and Written Communication Skills

Introduction

Our use of language in written and spoken forms is one of the most important ways by which we can communicate our understanding, gather new information, participate in the academic and professional world, and interact socially. In academic studies, written English is particularly important. Ways of communicating in different subject areas must be mastered, and the language must be appropriate.

Spoken and written communication

In both professional and social settings, we adapt our language according to the situation. As users of English, or any other language, we develop an understanding of what is accepted as culturally appropriate language and behaviour. The central element of all spoken and written communication is context: what the purpose of the communication is and who the participants are. The questions listed below show the importance of context in determining how the communication takes place.

Purpose

In most cases, communication fulfils a number of different functions. However, the speaker/writer always has an over-riding objective. For example, is the intention of the speaker/writer to:

• present a point of view?
• critique a theory or argument?
• report research findings?
• evaluate evidence from research?
• disseminate information?
• negotiate an arrangement?
• promote a policy/service?
• complain about a product/service?

Participants

The relationship between the speaker-listener/s and writer-reader/s and the situation affects the type of language and level of formality used. For example, is the relationship one of:

• health care professional and client/patient?
• colleagues in a professional setting?
• school teacher and parent?
• colleagues in a social setting?

Content that is available in the print version has been removed from this section of the e-version in line with copyright requirements.

Formal and informal language

Language exists on a continuum from formal to informal. Context affects the level of formality of the language we use. Examples of communication at the informal end of the continuum are face-to-face and telephone conversations and e-mails, for instance, with peers. At the informal end are lectures, speeches, research reports and academic essays. However, in most types of communication, we used a combination of more and less formal language. The table below contrasts the main features of each.

Formal and informal language

Informal	Formal
Phrasal verbs (verb + preposition) e.g. look at, hand in	Single verbs e.g. investigate, consider, observe; submit
Informal vocabulary e.g. get bigger, got, a lot	Formal vocabulary e.g. increase, obtained, considerable
Active voice e.g. Researchers developed a new vaccine.	Passive voice e.g. A new vaccine was developed.
Uses personal pronouns e.g. You can see the results in Figure 1. (active voice)	Avoids personal pronouns e.g. The results can be seen/are shown in Figure 1. (passive voice)
Contracted forms e.g. haven’t, fridge, ‘cos	Full forms e.g. have not, refrigerator, because
Slang e.g. whinge, bucks	Standard words/expressions e.g. complain, dollars
Abbreviations e.g. i.e., ASAP	Full words/expressions e.g. that is, as soon as possible
Informal greeting e.g. Cheers, Regards	More formal greeting e.g. (Yours) Sincerely

Note that both active and passive voice are used in informal as well as formal styles of communication. However, the passive voice is more frequently used in formal writing, for example a research report, as it more effectively communicates the writer’s intention and, at the same time, it sounds more impersonal.

General characteristics of academic writing

There is no one single style of academic writing. Writing in different subjects involves understanding the culture of a particular discipline and the way language is used to construct knowledge. However, there are some characteristics of academic writing which are common to all subject areas. These are summarised below.

use sources to develop and support your argument

An academic essay needs to present your own original work. However, for your essay to be credible, you need to draw on ideas and evidence from a range of appropriate sources. You develop your argument by integrating ideas and evidence from the literature. All material drawn from sources you read should include a citation in brackets within or at the end of the sentence (See Chapter 9).

use examples to support your claims

In developing your argument, you should avoid vagueness and overuse of generalisation. General statements about claims you make should be supported by evidence and examples and should be correctly cited (See Chapter 10).

be clear and concise
You need to:

• eliminate sentences and paragraphs not directly relevant to the essay question
• reword sentences so that your message is conveyed as simply as possible
• avoid overuse of the pronouns “this” and “it” in the same sentence or paragraph to limit the possibility of confusion or ambiguity. Make sure each time you use these words, that what they are referring to is very clear.
• replace clichéd expressions with simple prepositions or conjunctions, e.g. “although”, rather than “despite the fact that”; and “now”, rather than “at the present time”
• check that you have used punctuation correctly. In particular, misuse of commas can result in confused writing.

use a formal writing style

An academic essay is an example of formal written communication. You should, therefore, avoid conversational English and wordy expression (See page 9).

include a References list

You need to provide detailed and accurate bibliographical information about all the sources used in your writing at the end of the essay listed alphabetically (See Chapter 10).

While all subject areas require assignments to be written in a formal style, there may be differences in the degree to which features of informal style can be used. For instance, in a Social Work assignment involving personal reflection, a greater use of personal pronouns may be acceptable. Furthermore, different types of assignment may involve a greater use of certain grammatical structures. For example, in the Methods section of a thesis or prac. report, the passive voice is the most commonly used sentence type. If in doubt, check your subject guide or speak to the lecturer.

Improving your written communication skills

Use good general and technical dictionaries efficiently

You can learn a lot about language from your dictionary. The first few pages explain the symbols used; these will alert you to the kind of things dictionaries can teach. In addition to grammatical information, many current dictionaries provide information about differences in usage between spoken and written language, as well as groups of synonyms. Dictionaries are also very useful for checking your spelling and will explain possible variations, for example, where there are differences between American English on the one hand, and British and Australian English on the other.

Consult a writing guide

Writing guides generally cover all aspects of academic writing, including basic principles about writing style, grammar, sentence structure, vocabulary choice, and good paragraphing. Some writing guides are designed for writing in specific disciplines. See the Further Reading section for suggestions.

Use a grammar check with caution

Computer grammar checks are intended for writing for a range of everyday purposes. They are, therefore, not always very useful for academic writing. For example, grammar checks, particularly those based on American English, do not accept a passive sentence as grammatical and will suggest that you change it to an active sentence. However, in academic writing, there are many instances in which you will need to use a passive sentence. Moreover, grammar checks are not entirely reliable: they frequently miss grammatical mistakes, or underline correct sentences as ungrammatical. To get the most out of computer grammar checks, you need to have some knowledge of English grammar. When you are uncertain about suggestions made, consult a grammar book. See the Further Reading section for suggestions.

Use a thesaurus with caution

Many students consult the thesaurus on their computer when attempting to paraphrase material from sources they read. However, you should check the meaning of the synonym you have selected in a good dictionary. Although it may be a synonym, it may not be appropriate in the context in which you want to use it. In other words, synonyms often differ in usage.

Seek assistance

Chapter 1 of this handbook provides information about academic skills support for students in the Faculty at all campuses of La Trobe University. If you need advice on different aspects of planning and presenting written assignments, make an appointment with the relevant Adviser.

Further reading

Bate, D., & Sharpe, P. (1995). Harcourt Brace writer's handbook for university students. Sydney: Harcourt Brace.

Dykes, B. (2007). Grammar for everyone: Practical tools for learning and teaching grammar. Camberwell, Vic.: ACER Press.

Giltrow, J. (2002). Academic writing: Writing and reading in the disciplines. (3rd ed.). Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press.

Palmer, R. (2002). Write in style: A guide to good English. (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

Swales, J. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. (2nd ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Woodward-Kron, R., & Thomson, E. (2000). Academic writing: A language-based approach. Wollongong, NSW: Gonichi Language Services, University of Wollongong.

For information and a comprehensive range of interactive tasks related to English grammar, including basic sentence structure, verb tenses, definite and indefinite articles, see Improving your writing http://tinyurl.com/yoahg8 and Grammar Monster http://www.grammar-monster.com/

Recommended English language dictionaries

• Concise Oxford English Dictionary
• Oxford Australian English Dictionary
• Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
• Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
• Macquarie Dictionary

Chapter 6

Oral Presentations

Introduction

In the Health Sciences, undergraduate students are often asked to give an oral presentation as part of the assessment. This may involve planned presentations or short unplanned talks. Honours and postgraduate students are required to present their research in seminars in their Department/School. As graduates, presenting to groups is an integral part of the health professions. This chapter provides guidelines on the stages in preparing your presentation and practical hints to help you communicate effectively with your audience.

Planning your presentation

Like anything that is worthwhile, planning determines the success or failure of an oral presentation. You can be prepared by working through the suggested steps below.

Know the context

As pointed out in Chapter 5, to communicate effectively, you need to take into account the context: the purpose of your presentation and your audience. You will need to consider the following questions:

• What is the purpose of your presentation? What do you want your audience to know?
  • Establish an overall aim for the presentation. Before you start, sum up precisely what your presentation is about. Then, set objectives for the session to focus your talk. Your objectives must be simple or you will not have a clear message.
• Who is your audience? What experience do they bring? At what level do you pitch your talk?
  • Your relationship with your audience will determine the amount and depth of material you need to present. For example, if your audience has a sound background knowledge of any aspect of the material you will present, you need only provide a brief overview before going on to material that is new to the audience. In addition, you should consider whether or not you need to define key terms and concepts. Your audience and the situation also affect the style of language you use. If your audience comprises only classmates, it is appropriate to use a more informal style. On the other hand, if you are presenting at a research seminar, for example to an audience of academics or professionals, a more formal style would be appropriate (See Chapter 5).
• What is the setting/environment?
  • If possible, you should find out how many will attend the presentation. The size of the group affects the way you might organise the content, and the delivery style. For example, a smaller group allows for greater interaction with the audience, for example, by inviting questions during the presentation or by setting tasks for the audience.

Know the criteria for assessment

It is important that you plan your presentation with reference to the criteria for assessment. In general, assessment criteria cover two broad areas: content and delivery. Marking schemes also often include marks for quality of visual aids. An example of assessment criteria is given below. The guidelines provided in this chapter address these criteria.

Assessment criteria - Content

Content (5 marks)	Marks
Structure
Flow
Appropriate for audience
Enthusiasm/interest
Audience interaction
Total

Assessment criteria - Presentation

Presentation (10 marks)	Marks
Posture
Body language/gesture
Eye contact
Visual aids/overheads
Audibility/volume of voice
Rate
Fillers
Intonation
Fluency
Confidence/relaxation
Total

Adapted from Speech Pathology Effective Communication elective. Acknowledgement to Georgia Dacakis, School of Human Communication Sciences

Preparing your material

• Structuring the content

An oral presentation should be focussed and have a clear structure. Once you have completed the background reading/research for your topic, think about how you will organise the content. Like essays, formal talks have an introduction, a body and a conclusion. The body constitutes the major part of the presentation. As for essays, you should prepare a plan for the presentation (See Chapter 7).

• Writing the text

Once you have established the overall structure of your presentation, write out the full text. You will convert this to notes at a later stage. Most presentations are heavily based on visual material, for example data from published research or, in the case of Honours or PhD students, your own research. Therefore, in writing the full text of your presentation, you should use any visual such as tables and graphs as a reference point.

The basic requirement for the introduction of an oral presentation is that it provides your audience with an overview of the content you will present. However, unlike the introduction to an essay, in an oral presentation there are no conventions concerning its structure. You can explore different strategies to make it as interesting as possible to stimulate the interest of the audience. You should also think about the level of background information that your audience needs.

The body expands on the plan in a step-by-step fashion under headings and subheadings to show the hierarchy of the information. In developing the body of the talk, you need to consider the organisation that will help maintain the audience’s attention and the relevance to your audience of examples and other details you include.

The conclusion sums up the key points you made in the presentation and formulates conclusions. These may include the significance of the material you presented or any outstanding issues. To add to the interest value for your audience, you may return to a question, statistic, or quote, and so on in the introduction/earlier part of the talk.

During this stage of the preparation, you should make a rough estimate of the weighting in terms of time you will need for each section.

• Preparing the visuals

In preparing visual aids for your presentation, including PowerPoint slides, you should aim to illustrate ideas as simply as possible. Therefore, you should avoid large slabs of text and using unnecessary design features that do not contribute to communicating your message clearly, such as too many colours or animations.

• Creating notes

As pointed out in Chapter 5, there is a difference between spoken and written language. Therefore, you need to convert the complete text you have written into notes for speaking. You notes may consist of short summaries of sections of the text, phrases, facts and, if appropriate, direct quotations. You can reduce these notes further by underlining/highlighting key words and phrases or writing these onto cards. You will use these as prompts throughout your presentation.

At this stage, you will need to allocate specific times for each section or each card. You will have the chance to trial these during the rehearsal stage.

Rehearsing your presentation

Rehearsing is crucial to the success of an oral presentation. Rehearsal requires you to focus on how you will communicate the content of your presentation to your audience. This includes such aspects as the flow of the presentation, the level of formality of the language you use, body language, and pronunciation. The following tips are provided to help you get the most out of rehearsal.

Be familiar with the material

It is important that you are enthusiastic about your topic and that you have a complete understanding of the issues/data you will present. This will enable you to speak with confidence and effectively answer audience questions. You should, therefore:

• re-read both the full text and the summary notes/cards of your presentation several times.
• if necessary, do follow-up reading on any points that you do not understand fully
• carefully study material on visual aids, for example data, and check that what you have said in your notes is accurate.
• practise with the equipment you intend to use . Note: you should not memorise your talk. Firstly, you may experience a mental block during the presentation making it difficult to continue. Secondly, a memorised presentation sounds stilted and does not allow you to respond to your audience.

Check your timing

One of the main challenges in an oral presentation is to communicate what you want to say within the allocated time. This stage of the rehearsal allows you to check whether the times you allocated in the preparation stage for the various sections of your talk are feasible. The following is a suggested procedure for your rehearsal.

• Practise your presentation several times using these key words in your summary notes or cards as prompts and your visual aids. Note: You should not simply read through the notes aloud. Rather, you should practise presenting it as you would to an audience, for example, with the necessary pauses, signalling phrases, and so on.
• As you rehearse your presentation, from time to time, check the clock. If you are under or over the allocated time for a given section, mark that in your notes.
• Add or reduce material to the notes for your presentation according to the time check in the previous step.
• When you have made the necessary changes to your notes, run through the presentation again to ensure that the revised version fits the allocated time. Consider what other changes you could make during the presentation if you are running out of time. Note that the real presentation takes longer than the rehearsed presentation.

Practise your pronunciation

A clear voice and accurate pronunciation are an essential part of effective oral communication. You should, therefore:

• make sure that you can pronounce key words. If you are uncertain about correct pronunciation, refer to a good dictionary or, if you are an ESL student, ask a native speaker.
• practise correct stress (the syllable within a word and the word/s in a sentence you emphasise) and intonation (the rise and fall of voice for making statements, asking questions, emphasising, and so on).

Anticipate audience questions

As marks are usually also allocated to your handling of audience questions during discussion time, you need to prepare as thoroughly as possible. The following tips are provided to help you.

• Make sure you are thoroughly familiar with your material. Last minute review of your notes is essential.
• Think about your material from an audience perspective. Try to anticipate questions your audience might ask. For example, they might ask you to: explain something you have not got the time to cover in depth, clarify a definition or concept, give an example of a general point you have made, summarise the advantages/benefits, and so on. Formulate responses in your head.

During the presentation

The ultimate success of an oral presentation depends on how you manage various aspects of the delivery. The suggestions below cover the main aspects.

Before you start

To ensure that the presentation goes smoothly, you should:

• check the equipment. Allow enough time to get assistance with faulty equipment.
• distribute handouts before you start your talk.
• start on time, especially if another presentation is to follow yours.

Maintaining communication with your audience

In a successful oral presentation, your audience is engaged with what you are saying. This is possible if you maintain communication with your audience through:

• eye contact: Do not concentrate on your notes, and try not to look at the same one or two people throughout your presentation. Maintaining eye contact also helps you gauge your audience’s reaction and, thus, make any adjustments that may be necessary.
• body language, gesture: Look relaxed and comfortable. Show that you are enthusiastic about your topic and look as though you are enjoying the experience. In addition to voice, you communicate with your audience through appropriate body language and facial gestures.
• maintaining flow: To ensure that your presentation flows, you need to signal to your audience when you introduce a new point is introduce, give an example, and sum up points. From time to time, you also need to recap key points made during an earlier part of the talk to help the audience follow your line of argument.
• avoid using too many fillers, for example “um”. This can be done if you have rehearsed you presentation and have thought through what you are going to say at each point and how you will say it.
• using questions: A simple technique for communicating more directly with your audience is to use a question rather than a statement to introduce a point. For example, instead of saying, ”This is important because …”, you could use the question, “Why is this important?” and then answer the question. You can also involve your audience by occasionally asking them to answer a question.

Coping with nerves

Even experienced public speakers get nervous before a presentation. To overcome nervousness, you should:

• thoroughly prepare and rehearse your presentation. Lack of confidence can often be the result of a lack of familiarity with the material you are presenting.
• try not to rush through your presentation, and speak more slowly than you normally would in a conversation. Pause between sections, and take deep breaths.
• avoid standing in the same spot throughout the talk and try to look relaxed.

Monitoring your timing

Even though you may have rehearsed your presentation, your timing may be affected by something unforseen, for example, a problem with equipment, a late finish by the previous speaker, and so on. As you go through your presentation, keep an eye on the time and, if necessary, omit some material or summarise what you had intended saying in a particular section. This should not be difficult to do if you know your material well and if you have rehearsed your talk.

Answering audience questions

Even if you have tried to anticipate your audience’s questions, it is clearly not possible to predict them. You need to remember the following points:

• Try not to look surprised by a question asked.
• Avoid answering “I don’t know”. A more appropriate response would be to say, for example, “I haven’t had/didn’t have the chance to look closely at that; however, …”
• If you have not understood a question, ask the person to repeat or rephrase the question.

Further reading

Alley, M. (2003). The craft of scientific presentations: Critical steps to succeed and critical errors to avoid. New York: Springer.

Harvard Business School. (2004). Presentations that persuade and motivate. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press.

McEvedy, M. R., Packham, G., & Smith, P. (1986). Speaking in academic settings: Oral skills for seminars, discussions and interacting with supervisors. Melbourne: Nelson.

Moss, G. (1994). Persuasive presentations. North Ryde, NSW: CCH Australia.

Chapter 7

Planning and Writing Your Essay

Introduction

The preparation and presentation of written work is vital not only to your progress through the course, but will give you analytical, communication and presentation skills which you will take to the workplace. Written assignments, including essays, case study reports and literature reviews, are assessment tools which give you the opportunity to expand your knowledge and explore your understanding by drawing on the ideas of experts in the field. Although there are different types of essay, there are certain characteristics that they have in common. As for all types of formal writing, essay writing is a process involving a number of stages. The writing process must be managed within two constraints: time and word length. This chapter provides you with guidelines on how to approach planning and writing an essay.

Understanding the task

Orientation

Make sure you understand the task given. Find out the objectives of the assignment and how it might fit in with the unit aims. Ensure you really know what is being asked of you, how the assignment should be presented (for example, format requirements and the number of words), what the assessment criteria are, and what you should be getting out of this educational experience.

Analyse the essay question

A procedure for analysing the essay question is demonstrated below using a first year Social Work topic as an example.

Identify:

• key content words in the essay question: These indicate the concepts/theories covered in course work you are required to address in the essay.
  
  Do people get into financial trouble through their own poor management or due to broader social reasons? Discuss these contrasting views of the financial problems and compare the implications that each view has for a social worker working with people who have financial difficulties.
• direction words: These indicate what you are asked to do, e.g. analyse, evaluate, compare and contrast. Note that the word ‘discuss’ encompasses a number of other direction words, including those just metioned.
  
  Do people get into financial trouble through their own poor management or due to broader social reasons? Discuss these contrasting views of the financial problems and compare the implications that each view has for a social worker working with people who have financial difficulties.
• parts of the question: These indicate the sub-questions/aspects to the problem you are expected to address. They may also indicate the general structure of the essay.
  
  Do people get into financial trouble through their own poor management or due to broader social reasons? Discuss these contrasting views of the financial problems and compare the implications that each view has for a social worker working with people who have financial difficulties.

Brainstorm the topic

Make rough notes/a mind map about what you already know (concepts, theories, research evidence) about the topic from lectures/tutorials. This will guide your literature search and will also be useful in the essay plan.

Example of a mind map

One way of brainstorming the essay topic on page 34 is demonstrated below.

Example of a mind map

The literature search

If references or a reading list is not provided for the assignment, a useful starting point is often the suggested readings for lectures or tutorials on the topic. These may help guide your thinking, rather than supply definitive answers. As noted in Chapter 2, you should make use of the resources of the library and the skills of the librarians to get the material required for the assignment.

A poorly researched essay will result in a poorly written essay. To be well prepared for the writing of the essay, you should follow the following general principles:

• For an academic essay it is expected that you will draw on quality sources, that is, mainly from academic books, refereed journal articles (print and electronic), and review articles.
• Use skimming and scanning reading techniques to find material that is directly relevant to your essay topic and that you will need to read in depth.
• Read most/all of the sources you will use before starting the essay.

Chapter 4 provides advice on how to read for assignments and take notes from the sources your read.

Stages in writing the essay

The essay plan

• Make a simple one-page plan of the body of the essay based on notes from your reading and, if useful, the initial mind map.
• The essay plan shows the line of argument you are taking. On the other hand, the ideas presented in the mind map have no particular order or structure.
• Include sub-headings and bullet points under main headings showing the main aspects/sections of your discussion.
• Check that headings and points address the essay question and that they are logically ordered.
• Include references in your plan, as the ideas from sources are part of the argument you are developing. This will also help avoid problems with inaccurate referencing in the essay.

Two examples of student essay plans are provided on the following pages: Essay plan 1 is a Social Work topic and Essay plan 2 a Mental Health Nursing topic.

Note the following:

• The number and types of references used will depend on the requirements of the essay. Essay 1 is more theoretical and, so, can use fewer sources. In addition, they do not all need to be recent. Essay 2 draws on recent research evidence related to the mental illness in question. The writer needs to use a more comprehensive range of references, and they need to be recent.
• In all essay topics, there is more than one way of structuring an essay to ensure that all parts of the question have been addressed.
• In the essay plan stage, you should not be concerned about the Introduction and Conclusion. In both plans, the writers have noted where the definition/statistic included in the introduction is sourced from.
• The number of sections in the plan does not necessarily correspond to the number of paragraphs in the essay. Some of the sections may need two to three paragraphs.

Essay plan 1: Social Work

Essay plan 2: Mental Health Nursing

Writing the first draft

• Start the first draft based on your plan. At this stage, focus on the level of analysis and the logical presentation of the content.
• Incorporate material from notes you took from your reading into the main stages of your discussion/argument.
• Make sure that you are summarising and paraphrasing material from your sources (See Chapter 9).

Redrafting the essay

The purpose of redrafting is to refine the content of the essay and to improve the readability. You will need to make several drafts of the essay. The amount of redrafting will vary across the essay, depending on complexity of content, difficulty with structure of essay, written expression, and so on. The following tips will help you.

• Keep in mind that you are not writing for yourself, but for an audience (the reader/readers). With each successive draft, you should be focussing more on how well you are communicating your points.
• Include accurate references in every draft.
• When you are sure of the content of the body, write the introduction and conclusion.
• If you are over the word limit, check your plan to see what material can be left out or how to re-write sections more concisely. If you leave out material, you may need to make adjustments in other parts of the essay to make sure it flows. Check that the modified essay answers the essay question.
• If you are under the word limit, check the essay question, your plan and notes from sources to see what important points you may have omitted. If you add material, you may need to make adjustments in other parts of the essay to make sure it flows. Check that the modified essay answers the essay question.

Completing the essay

• When the essay is completed, write the references list. All references cited in the essay should be listed in the references, and vice versa. Make sure you are clear about the referencing system you are required to use and the details of referencing conventions for that system (See Chapter 10).
• Check that your essay meets the requirements for the assignment. Use the assessment criteria as a checklist to guide you in evaluating your writing. Assessment criteria usually focus on three broad areas:
  • Content: critical analysis of topic, identifying key issues/concepts/theories, use of the literature.
  • Organisation: content presented in a logical order, flow of argument, paragraph structure, effectiveness of Introduction and Conclusion.
  • Presentation: referencing conventions, writing style, English expression, grammar, spelling, layout.
• Allow enough time (e.g. at least the day before the essay is due, if possible) to edit and proofread your writing. Check the essay structure for writing style, accuracy of expression, grammar and spelling. Reading your essay out aloud helps you identify problems with structure and expression.

Essay Structure

The structure of an essay

There is more than one way of organising the material in an essay. This will partly be determined by the nature of the essay question, and partly by how you decide to respond to the question. However, all academic essays have the same broad structure, as described below.

Introduction

• The Introduction begins by indicating the significance of the general area related to the topic and provides some background information. It then states the specific topic that will be addressed and defines the scope of the essay by indicating the main issues to be discussed.
• General background information (i.e. that informs the reader why the topic is important) should be in the introduction. Background material that is more technical or detailed that the reader needs in order to understand the main discussion of the essay, or is part of the discussion, should follow the Introduction.
• A definition that relates to a key word in the essay topic should/can be included in the introduction. More specific definitions or definitions of key concepts or theories related to different stages of the discussion should appear in later sections.
• An Introduction may need to have more than one part to address the essay question. However, for most undergraduate essays, one paragraph (approximately 6-12 sentences) is usually adequate.
• Note: An Introduction should not contain any conclusions, as this pre-empts your discussion.

The body

• The body of the essay is where you develop the main points of your argument sequentially and with appropriate evidence from your sources. It presents the main issues related to the essay question in a logical step-by-step fashion.
• The issues should be linked both conceptually and linguistically. That is, each point you make should be complete in itself, but logically build on the previous point and lead to the next. Similarly, each paragraph should be self-contained, but should be linked to other paragraphs through the language you use, for example, connectives and transitional statements.

Conclusion

• The Conclusion briefly summarises the main points of the essay with reference to the essay question and then states the conclusions reached.
• It may also state implications for professional practice, or make recommendations for future directions in research, professional practice and/or policy development.
• The Conclusion should not introduce new material.

Example of an Introduction and a Conclusion

Essay Topic: ‘Anorexia Nervosa’

Introduction

Nurses across all sectors of the health care industry come in contact with patients with a range of physical and mental illnesses. The dieting disorder anorexia nervosa is a serious condition that affects the lives of 0.5% of the female population. While its prevalence is only half of that of schizophrenia, it has the highest death rate of any mental illness (Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists (RANZCP), 2003). It is therefore important nurses possess adequate skills and knowledge to enable diagnosis and treatment of this illness. This essay will provide a definition of anorexia nervosa, and identify diagnostic features of the illness and the components of the mental status examination. Various treatment strategies will be outlined, and a basic nursing care plan with interventions and rationale will be suggested for the treatment of anorexia nervosa.

Conclusion

This paper has highlighted the complexity of identifying and treating patients suffering from the dieting disorder anorexia nervosa. Each case is as unique as patients suffering from this mental illness. It is therefore imperative that health professionals develop care plans and strategies which address not only the physical well-being of the patient, but also address the psychological and social issues which impact upon the patient’s mental health. Health professionals must develop a positive rapport with their patients to promote open communication and trust. Communication, participation and co-operation between patients, their families and health professionals will enhance the effectiveness of the chosen treatments and recovery rates.

From a second year Mental Health Nursing assignment, La Trobe University, 2004

Organisation of a paragraph

Each paragraph in an essay contains a main idea which is linked to all the other main points made in the essay. The main or controlling idea in a paragraph is generally contained in a topic sentence, often at the beginning of a paragraph. The other sentences in the paragraph support the main idea in various ways. These include:

• defining terms connected with the topic
• providing detailed discussion/analysis of a concept
• including examples, research evidence or other detailed material that support the claim made in the topic sentence
• paraphrasing or summarising similar/contrasting views in the literature

Note: You should avoid one-sentence and one-page paragraphs.

Below are two examples of well-structured paragraphs from student essays. The topic sentence is underlined.

Example 1

When assessing social problems, Hulley and Clarke (1994) identify two fundamental explanations used to define the cause of the problem. First there is the ‘blaming the victim’ perspective; this approach attributes problems that arise to deficiencies of particular individuals. When considering the above statements made by the Australian Immigration Minister and the term ‘queue jumpers’, it is apparent that these phrases underpin the blaming the victim pathology. The second approach, social construction theory, rationalises that social problems occur as the result of flaws in social organisation and structure. Unlike the ‘blaming the victim’ approach, this viewpoint moves away from working with individuals and seeks to remedy social problems on a larger scale by reassessing and addressing inadequacies within social structures. These two approaches differ significantly and the actions pursued by those working within a social welfare setting will depend on the theoretical model the professional has adopted.

Example 2

A large number of studies support the existence of a strong correlation between a child’s phonological awareness (PA) and his or her progress in learning to read (Bradley & Bryant, 1983; Torgesen, Wagner & Rashotte, 1994). A study by Blackman (2002) found that children who were more successful at performing PA tasks learnt to read words with greater ease than those who were unsuccessful. Earlier studies such as Torgesen, Wagner and Rashotte (1994) demonstrated similar findings to Blackman (2002). Torgesen et al. (1994) tested phonological awareness, as well as pre-reading and general verbal skills, in 288 five-year-old kindergarten children. Performance on tests of phonological awareness in kindergarten (identifying sound within presented words) was found to be strongly related to reading development in both first and second grade, even when controlling for verbal and pre-reading abilities measured at kindergarten.

Using headings

For some units, headings are not used in essays, while in others, headings are required. However, in some cases, there are no specific requirements, so the student can choose whether or not to use them. Check your unit guide or speak to your lecturer if you are uncertain. Headings are frequently misused in student writing. The following tips are provided to help you use headings more effectively.

• Headings are a signpost for the reader indicating what a section will be about.
• Headings do not structure an essay that is poorly written.
• A heading should be an accurate overview of the content of the section which follows.
• An effective heading is brief and informative, e.g. ‘Background’ is not informative.
• A heading for a section should be followed by a topic sentence in the next paragraph related to that heading.

Presentation

It is usual that your lecturer or school will issue explicit guidelines on how written material is to be presented. Follow this carefully, as this may significantly contribute to your mark. In general, the following guidelines will be of use:

• The cover page should state the subject code and subject title, assignment title, lecturer’s name, your name and student ID, and the date of submission.
• For large works, a numbered contents page can be a valuable asset.
• Ensure your pages are numbered, and check for missing pages.
• Presentations are usually typewritten (computer printed), on one side of the page only, with generous margins, and either double spaced or space-and-a half.
• Make sure the pages of the assignment are firmly fastened together. Generally, it is preferred that you submit your work without a folder or plastic envelope.
• Keep a copy of the submitted assignment, and keep your rough notes and drafts until the assignment has been assessed and returned.

Note: Your School/Department may issue a receipt on submission of your assignment.

Avoiding plagiarism

The assignment you hand in must be your own work. The penalties for submitting work that is not your own can be very severe. Plagiarism occurs when you:

• use part or all of an assignment you have already submitted for another subject. Even though this is your own writing, submitting it for another subject constitutes plagiarism.
• copy another student’s assignment and submit it as your own. Your lecturers are very easily able to identify all or part of an assignment that have been copied from another student.
• fail to properly acknowledge (reference) material you have used from other sources. This includes print and electronic sources, visual images, CD ROMs, and so on. This aspect of plagiarism is dealt with in detail in Chapters 9 and 10. Other advice on how to avoid plagiarism is provided in Chapter 4.

Further reading

Giltrow, J. (2002). Academic writing: Writing and reading in the disciplines. (3rd ed.). Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press.

Hay, I. (2002). Making the grade: A guide to successful communication and study. (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Indiana University. Writing tutorial services. http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets.shtml

La Trobe University learning website at http://www.latrobe.edu.au/learning Student Learning

Marshall, L., & Rowland, F. (2006). A guide to learning independently. (4th ed.). Sydney: Pearson Education.

Siyln-Roberts, H. (2002). Writing for Science. (2nd ed.). New Zealand: Pearson Education New Zealand Limited.

Wallace, M.J. (2002). Study skills in English. (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Zilm, G, & Entwistle, C. (2002). The smart way: An introduction to writing for nurses. (2nd ed.). Sydney: W.B. Saunders.

Chapter 8

Writing a Literature Review

Introduction

A literature review is a written evaluation of the work of others on a specific topic or research question. It either answers a question or discusses a topic using published material. The literature review sets out to explore and then tell the reader what has been written about a particular topic and to evaluate the quality of the literature described. Evaluation of the appropriateness, reliability and quality of the published material is an essential part of a literature review, and this makes it different from an essay. This chapter provides guidance on how to select quality literature for your review, (in the case of research students) define your research topic, and how to plan and write the review.

The essential aspects of a literature review

The literature review in a thesis

It is an essential part of all research and reveals what is known and unknown about a topic, what others have discovered, and the quality of their work. A review of the literature is the first part of any academic project. The review assists researchers to clarify and define the parameters of their research in relation to others’ work. Ultimately, it contributes to the body of knowledge in a particular area.

What literature may be used?

Any published materials may be used in a literature review, although some are more reliable than others. Refereed journals, for example, have been submitted to the rigour of peer review and may be considered more credible than non-refereed publications. Evaluation of the literature includes an examination of the worth of a source, that is the credentials/bias of the author, or the quality of the publication as well as the actual content.

Literature could include:

• Refereed journals
• Survey
• Experimental reports
• Journal articles
• Daily and weekly publications
• Government / Departmental reports
• Books/chapters in books
• Published case studies
• Review papers
• Official documents
• Electronic information

Care should be taken when selecting literature for review. Literature must be current. Literature over 5-10 years of age may be used in an historical context, or as definitive texts on the topic. The best quality is found among the professional journals. You should not just accept anything found on the Web, as much of the information is for consumers rather than professionals. A good guide is to look at the address; if it contains “.com”, the information would not be valuable for your literature review. The number of references necessary will depend on the scope of the work, which may vary from a brief summary to a literature review for a doctoral thesis.

Defining a topic

Your topic should give a definite and concise indication of what is to come.

• State in a complete sentence exactly what your review is about.
• Do not be too ambitious or too broad in your topic.
• Avoid vague, ambiguous or ill-defined terms and confusing vocabulary.
• If no topic is provided, select a topic for which there is fairly recent, reliable publications which will help point you to other sources.

Finding the literature

An invaluable skill, and one that is fun to develop, is the skill of using the library resources to find information you want. Your lecturer may organise a session with one of the librarians to get you started.

• Start with La Trobe facilities; they are excellent.
• Use reference lists from articles gathered.
• Use book/journal/computer indexes and listings.
• Do not forget new journal volumes (not yet listed).
• Do a literature search - use key words.
• Use paper and electronic sources of information.
• Use other specialist libraries.

Managing your literature

• Keep copies of everything, as you will probably need to re-read information.
• Keep correct and full citations when you collect references.
• Read the documents as you collect them. This will help when you go back to the article.
• There are many different ways to organise data. The method is up to you, but be methodical and thorough.
• Sort your information under headings, use a computer, numbering system, and so on. These headings may change as your review develops.
• Use a computer bibliographic package, for example, EndNote 10.2.

Structure of the review

The review should be a well-organised and logically developed presentation on the stated topic/question. It should include:

Table 1 - Structure of the review

Inclusions	Description
Title	indicates the topic area/question to be discussed
Key words	lists the main concepts investigated, if required.
Abstract	gives a brief outline of the issue examined and the general findings.
Introduction	describes the topic, defines terms and boundaries, and outlines the purpose of the review.
Discussion	describes and evaluates the literature, pointing out where authors agree and disagree. Information is organised in logical sequence. Discussion integrates the literature. For papers of more than 300 words, headings give structure to the content and guide the reader.
Conclusion	sums up what has been discussed and draws general conclusions about findings. Includes suggestions from these findings for further investigation.
References	A reference list contains a list in alphabetical order of all the material referred to in your review. Information on referencing is included in Chapters 9 and 10 of this handbook. A bibliography usually contains all references you have read that have contributed to your understanding of the topic, including those referred to in your paper.

General hints for writing literature reviews

• Make sure your review is easily "readable".
• Each paragraph should contain one main idea, contributing to the heading and the review topic. Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Each paragraph should follow from the last and lead to the next. Clear links should be made.
• Generally professional literature uses third person. However, use of the first person is now acceptable.
• Make sure the review is not too jargon-laden.
• Use short quotes if necessary. Only use long quotes for a good reason.
• Always acknowledge other authors’ words and ideas to avoid plagiarism.

Further reading

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual for the American Psychological Association. (5th ed.). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

Bate, D., & Sharpe, P. (1995). Harcourt Brace writer's handbook for university students. Sydney: Harcourt Brace.

Brown, R. F., Pressland, A. J., & Rogers, D.J. (1993). Righting scientific writing : Focus on your main message. Rangelands Journal.15, 183-89.

Evans, D. G. (1995). How to write a better thesis or report. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press.

Hart, C. (1998). Doing a literature review: Releasing the social science research imagination. London: Sage Publications.

Henninger, M. (2003). The hidden web: Finding quality information on the net. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

Punch, K. (2000). Developing effective research proposals. London: SAGE.

Thomas, S. (2000). How to write health sciences papers, dissertations and theses. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.

Chapter 9

Referencing – An Overview

Introduction

Learning at university is characterised by a culture of enquiry. Academic writing builds on a pre-existing philosophy, theorem or understanding and draws on evidence from research to put forward new propositions. The purpose of referencing is to accurately and unambiguously acknowledge the sources you have drawn on in your writing. To use another’s ideas as if they are your own is called plagiarism. This chapter provides guidance on what and where you need to reference in your written assignments, as well as tips on how to avoid plagiarism.

Key elements of referencing

Why you need to reference

In university study, you are required to use referencing in all written assignments in order to:

• acknowledge the work or ideas of other people that you use in your own writing
• support your claims/argument (e.g. in an essay), your analysis of results in a prac. experiment, or your critique of theories/published research
• show that you are familiar with the literature
• allow the reader to follow up your sources of information

What you need to reference

You should reference material you have cited from all sources, including academic books, academic journal articles and electronic sources. Electronic sources that are appropriate to use in academic writing include refereed journals, reports (government and those by non-government organisations), conference papers, media releases, and so on). When writing prac. reports, for example in Physiology, you are required to cite material from practical manuals.

Students are frequently penalised for not referencing material that needs to be referenced. In most cases, this constitutes unintentional plagiarism. To avoid plagiarising, you need to reference:

• ideas that are not your own (even if they are in your own words)
• summarised or paraphrased examples, theories, evidence, conclusions
• factual information, such as data
• definitions, especially technical ones
• visuals (e.g. tables, graphs and figures)
• direct quotations (the actual words used by the author)

Where to reference

In cases where students have omitted a reference in their writing, it is generally a question of understanding where references are needed. In deciding where to reference, you need to consider:

• what concepts/theories in the subject you need to demonstrate an understanding of (these need to be referenced).
• what constitutes common or background knowledge in your subject and at your year level (this does not need to be referenced).
• where the ideas from one source end and those from another, or your own comments, begin

If you are uncertain about any of these questions, check with your tutor or lecturer at the time the assignment is set.

The examples below from student writing show where and why references are needed in these particular assignments.

Example 1

Example 2

The extract below from an essay on the financial problems from different theoretical perspectives shows how you reference when only one source is used in a particular section of your assignment.

From a 1st year Social Work essay, La Trobe University, 2005

Note: According to the APA Referencing system, when a source is cited more than once within a paragraph, the date does not need to be repeated if there is no confusion with other sources. However, it is a good habit to get into to always include the date with the author’s name.

Example 3

The extract below from an essay on research into the difficulties faced by nursing students shows how you reference when you draw material from more than one source in a particular section of your assignment.

From a first year Information Literacy for Nurses essay, La Trobe University, 2004)

Citation styles

Citation is often used interchangeably with the ‘reference’. In your writing you can use different styles of citation, depending on what you want to focus on, as well as on stylistic considerations. Note that citation style is not the same as referencing system (See Chapter 10). There are two main citation styles, as summarised below.

Information – focussed citation

• In an information-focussed citation, the author and date are placed at the end of the information cited in brackets. That is, they are not a grammatical part of the sentence.
• An information-focussed citation is typically used to:
  • state established/generally-accepted facts in the field
  • indicate our current knowledge from research
  • define concepts or theories
  • summarise/make conclusions from research related to a particular problem

The following are examples of information-focussed citations taken from student writing.

Example 1

Phonological Awareness (PA) refers to an individual’s awareness of the sound structure, or phonological structure, of a spoken word (Gillon, 2004). Phonological awareness is a multilevel skill involving the manipulation of sounds and sound units within words (Muter, Hulme, Snowling, & Taylor, 1997). Such awareness can be achieved at the syllable, onset-rime or phoneme level (Gillon, 2004).

From a Masters in Speech Pathology essay, La Trobe University, 2005

In this example, the student has integrated material from a number of sources to write an extended definition of phonological awareness.

Example 2

Postnatal depression is a mental disorder that affects up to 10-15% of new mothers (Beck, 2002; Buist, 2003; Droppleman, Meighan, Thomas, & Wood, 1997; Jones & Venis, 2001; Ward, 1999). However, this form of depression can also have adverse effects on family relations, particularly with the mother’s new child and partner (Buist, 2003; Stein, cited in Ward, 1999).

From a second year Mental Health Nursing essay, La Trobe University, 2004

In the above example from an introductory section of an essay, the writer establishes what we know about postnatal depression. This type of information is typically drawn from multiple sources.

Author – focussed citation

• In an author-focussed citation, the author’s name is a grammatical part of the sentence.
• An author-focussed citation is typically used to:
  • highlight the contribution of a given author
  • differentiate a particular author/researcher’s ideas from those of others
  • compare and contrast different perspectives on a particular issue

The example below focusses on the strategies for coping with patient suffering identified by different authors.

Example 3

There are several strategies that may be useful to students learning to cope with patient suffering. Eifried (2003) found that students benefited from having their own private space in the clinical setting – a place for students to express their emotions and then regroup. Allcock (2001) described the need for students to discuss their emotions with supervisors and peers, and the benefits of instructors telling students that it is alright for them to cry.

From a first year Information Literacy for Nurses essay, La Trobe University, 2004

Using direct quotations

There is much confusion in student writing about the use of direct quotations. In most cases, in your writing you will reference material that you have summarised or paraphrased from your sources. It is not essential that you use direct quotations. In fact, you should use them selectively.

When you should use direct quotations

You should use direct quotations for:

• a particularly effective, powerful or controversial statement
• a definition or part of a definition, esp. a technical one
• a specific term or expression created by an author
• any of the above quoted in the source you are reading

Below are examples from student writing of effective use of direct quotations. The quoted sections powerfully and succinctly convey an idea which would be difficult to capture in a paraphrase.

Example 1

Nursing researchers argue that intuition uses processes which are “hard-wired through evolution” (Effken, 2001, p.58).

Example 2

Values are fundamental to social work practice and are defined as “the customs, standard of conduct and principles considered desirable by a culture, a group of people, or an individual” (Barker, 1995, cited in Netting, Kettner, & McMurtry, 1998, p. 329).

The following example is a poor use of a direct quotation, as the section quoted is stating a simple fact using everyday language that is unremarkable.

Example 3

It was found that families with young children were at the sharp end of homelessness in Victoria and that “nearly nine out of every ten children were aged 12 and under …” (Wilcox, 2004, p. 129).

How you should use direct quotations

Direct quotations should be integrated into your writing. That is, you need to provide a context for the quotation. This can be done in two ways:

• as the grammatical continuation of your sentence

Example

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that “everyone has the right to seek and enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution” (Balilliet, 2003, p. 747).

• as a complete sentence introduced by (author’s name) wrote/stated and a colon, or using as follows and a colon, e.g.

Example

Wilcox (1998) stated: Occupational therapists have proved poor at valuing the profession’s philosophical base and have failed to ….. (p. 21).

Referencing conventions related to using direct quotations are provided in Chapter 10.

Avoiding plagiarism

Paraphrasing and summarising

To avoid plagiarism, as far as possible, you should be paraphrasing and summarising ideas and information from the sources you read. When you paraphrase, you put the meaning of the original text in your own words. Note that it is generally not possible to paraphrase technical language or discipline-specific jargon.

When you summarise, you write a shortened version of the original text which contains the main points. A summary usually involves some degree of paraphrase.

Note the following points:

• You must understand the original text completely to be able to paraphrase or summarise it.
• A paraphrase or summary cannot change the meaning or alter the focus of the original text.
• Paraphrased or summarised material should be integrated into your own writing. It should be consistent with the language style of the rest of the assignment.
• Paraphrased or summarised material may be integrated into your argument through introductory/concluding statements, comments and evaluative statements.

The next page shows an extract from a Social Work essay on debt in which the writer has effectively paraphrased and summarised material from one of her sources. Extracts from the corresponding sections of the source material are provided below.

Source Material

Page 123, para. 4

Page 124, paras. 4-5

Extract from student essay

Ryan (1993) makes the point that, although studies show that families with low incomes avoided using credit, or used it with caution, unforseen circumstances could drive them into debt to meet basic needs. In his 1993 study of bankrupts, Ryan noted that 60% of those who were bankrupt because of debt issues were welfare recipients. He listed three reasons welfare recipients would have gone into debt: 1) their benefit was inadequate to meet their needs and wants and so they went into debt to meet these needs; 2) they entered into credit arrangements thinking they could make payments but then their circumstances changed; and 3) their benefit could not adequately provide for their daily needs, therefore, they failed to meet certain payments so they could buy food. Ryan (1993) went on to say that the average Melbournian consumer bankrupt was “likely to be unemployed and living in rented accommodation” (p. 123), earned less than $12,000 a year, and did not finish secondary school.

From a second year Social Work essay, La Trobe University, 2005

Helpful tips from La Trobe University Public Health Librarians

The La Trobe University librarians receive many queries from students who are uncertain about where citing sources ends and plagiarism begins. They have suggested the following websites as particularly helpful:

• Citing Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism: Documentation Guidelines
  http://www.lib.duke.edu/libguide/citing.htm
  • Librarian's comment: A good site for logically binding the two ideas of citing sources and plagiarism.
• Sources: Their Use and Acknowledgement (from Dartmouth) Sources and Citations at Dartmouth College
  http://www.dartmouth.edu/~sources/
  • Librarian's comment: Note the sophisticated, clear and logical layout of these pages. The examples are comprehensive and useful. Included are website citations, no author citations, etc.
• Plagiarism: What It is and How to Recognize and Avoid It (from Indiana)
  http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/plagiarism.shtml
  • Librarian's comment: Includes examples of acceptable and unacceptable paraphrases.
  La Trobe University Library: Style Guides and Manuals.
  http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/help/style-guides.php

Further reading

La Trobe University learning website at http://www.latrobe.edu.au/learning Student Learning

Marshall, L., & Rowland, F. (2006). A Guide to Learning Independently. (4^th ed.). Sydney: Pearson Education.

Wallace, M.J. (2002). Study Skills in English. (2^nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter 10

Referencing – A Guide To The APA System

Introduction

There are three main referencing systems: the footnote style (Oxford), the author-date (Harvard) style, and the number-sequence (Vancouver) style. The basic principles underlying all referencing systems are the same. The most widely used referencing system in the Faculty of Health Sciences is the American Psychological Association (APA) system (a variation of the author-date system). Your subject guides indicate the preferred referencing system in that subject. If you are uncertain, check with your lecturer. This chapter firstly outlines the basic rules of referencing using author-date systems and then explains the conventions for the APA referencing system. A web link for the Harvard system is provided in Further Reading.

Basic rules of referencing

The following general principles of referencing apply to all author-date systems. Note that the examples provided are in the APA system. However, the basic rules also apply to Harvard and other author-date systems.

Referencing sources in your assignment (in-text)

More examples of in-text referencing are provided in the rest of this chapter.

The References list

More examples of listing references are provided in the rest of this chapter.

American Psychological Association (APA) referencing system

The following are the details of the conventions used in the APA system for in-text referencing and the References list for the most commonly used sources in Health Sciences.

single author

In-text

surname as part of the sentence – date in brackets

According to Johnstone (2001), individuals with mental illness are among the most stigmatised, discriminated against, disadvantaged and vulnerable populations in society.

surname and date in brackets

Individuals with mental illness are among the most stigmatised, discriminated against, disadvantaged and vulnerable populations in society (Johnstone, 2001).

References

Book

use surname, initial/s, date, title of book (in italics), (edition no.), place of publication, publisher

Germov, J. (2002). Second opinion: An introduction to Health Sociology. (2nd ed.). Sydney: Oxford University Press.

Journal Article (print)

use surname, initial/s, date, article title, journal name (in italics), vol. no. (in italics), (issue no.), page nos.

Johnstone, M. (2001). Stigma, social justice and the rights of the mentally ill: Challenging the status quo. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 10 (3), 200-209.

Note: For book titles, you use upper case for the first word only and if there is a name (e.g. of a person, place, organisation, academic discipline) which would normally take upper case. Journal titles are written in upper case.

two authors

In-text

surnames as part of the sentence – use ‘and’ between authors’ names

Allcock and Standen (2001) found that, when first encountering suffering during clinical placement, nursing students experience a wide range of strong emotions.

surnames and dates in brackets – use ‘&’ between authors’ names

When first encountering suffering during clinical placement, nursing students experience a wide range of strong emotions (Allcock & Standen, 2001).

References

use comma and ‘&’ between authors’ names

Allcock, N., & Standen, P. (2001). Student nurses’ experiences of caring for patients in pain. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 38, 287-295.

three to five authors

In-text

on first mention – list all surnames, use comma and ‘&’ between the last two names

Student attrition is more likely when grief is unacknowledged and unsupported (Matzo, Sherman, Lo, Egan, & Grant, 2003).

subsequent citations – use first surname and ‘et al.’

Studies have shown the necessity of education in preparing student nurses for coping with patient death during clinical placement (Matzo et al., 2003).

References

list all surnames, use comma and ‘&’ between last two names

Matzo, M.L., Sherman, D.W., Lo, K., Egan, K.A., & Grant, M. (2003). Strategies for teaching loss, grief and bereavement. Nurse Educator, 28 (2), 71-76.

six or more authors

In-text

use ‘et al.’ for first mention and all subsequent citations

It is likely that the incidence of stroke will rise, with a corresponding increased demand on health care services (Dewey et al., 2001).

References

list the first six authors, then use ‘et al.’

Dewey, H., Thrift, A.G., Mihalopoulos, C., Carter, R., MacDonnell, R.A., McNeill, J.J. et al. (2001). Cost of stroke in Australia from a societal perspective: Results from the North East Melbourne Stroke Incidence Study (NEMESIS). Stroke, 32, 2409-2416.

Note: When there are two or more sources with multiple authors (three or more) that shorten to the same surname, in-text you need to cite the surnames of as many subsequent authors as is needed to distinguish the references.

In-text

Lonigan, Burgess, Anthony, Barker et al. (1998) … …
Lonigan, Burgess, Anthony, Liberman et al. (2000) … …

References

Lonigan, C., Burgess, S., Anthony, J., Barker, T., Fischer, F., Carter, B. et al. (1998). Development of phonological sensitivity in 2-to-5-year-old children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90 (2), 294-311.

Lonigan, C., Burgess, S., Anthony, J., Liberman, I., Fischer, F., Brown, A. et al. (2000). Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: Evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 36 (5), 596-613.

chapter in edited book

In-text

use referencing conventions as for single-author books

Observation is a fundamental skill that is used on a daily basis and routinely included in clinical gait assessment (Guiliani, 1990).

References

use author’s surname and initial/s, date, chapter title, name/s of editor/s, title of book (in italics), page nos. of chapter, place of publication, publisher

Guiliani, C.A. (1990). Adult hemiplegic gait. In G.L. Smidt (Ed.), Gait in rehabilitation, (2nd ed., pp. 256-273). Edinburgh, UK: Churchill-Livingstone Inc.

compilation textbook (chapters by different authors, no editor)

In-text

use referencing conventions as for book/journal articles

When the States and Territories need extra money for their hospitals, they turn to the Commonwealth (Duckett, 2004).

References

use referencing conventions as for book, + title of textbook, page nos. of chapter in textbook, place of publication and publisher of textbook

Duckett. S. (2004). Financing the Australian health care system (Chapter 3). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. In Interdisciplinary professional practice (pp. 203-230). (2007). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

an edited work with no authors

In-text

use editor/s’ name/s as for author/s

References

use editor/s’ name/s in place of author/s

Stock, G., & Campbell, J. (Eds.). (2000). Engineering the human genome. New York: Oxford University Press.

secondary source (author cited within a source)

In-text

original author as part of the sentence – secondary source and date in brackets

Stein (cited in Ward, 1999) has suggested that this form of depression can also have adverse effects.

original author, secondary source and date all in brackets

This form of depression can also have adverse effects (Stein, cited in Ward, 1999).

References

list secondary source only

Ward, B. (1999). Improving the detection of postnatal depression. Professional Nurse, 15 (1), 15-18.

same author(s), different years

In-text

list sources in order of publication

Some correlation studies have also indicated that certain aspects of phonological awareness … … (Bradley and Bryant, 1983, 1985).

References

list sources in order of publication

Bradley, L., & Bryant, p. (1983). Categorising sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature, 301, 419-421.

Bradley, L., & Bryant, p. (1985). Rhyme and reason in reading and spelling. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

same author(s), same year

In-text

use lower case letters to distinguish between publications (based on order cited in assignment)

Onset-rime awareness has the most direct link with reading acquisition (Goswami, 2000a; Goswami, 2000b; Goswami & Bryant, 1990).

References

letters with sources correspond to those used in-text

Goswami, U. (2000a). Causal connections in beginning reading. Journal of Research in Reading, 22, 217-240.

Goswami, U. (2000b). In the beginning was the rhyme? A reflection on Hulme, Hatcher, Nation, Brown, Adams and Stuart. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 82, 41-46.

different authors, same surname

In-text

include initials to distinguish between authors

It has been claimed that occupation is the central focus of Occupational Science (M.A. Wilcock, 1998). However, some argue that …. (P. Wilcock, 2000).

References

list in alphabetical order according to authors’ initials with sources correspond to those used in-text

Wilcock, M.A. (1998).

Wilcock, P. (2000).

two or more sources in brackets

In-text

sources are ordered alphabetically - use a semicolon between sources

Numerous studies have found an association between phonological awareness and the acquisition of literacy (Adams, 1990; Blachman, 2003; Bradley & Bryant, 1983; Goswami & Bryant, 1990; Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1994; Wagner & Torgesen, 1987).

direct quotation

In-text

short quotation

surname as part of the sentence – use double quotation marks and page no.

According to Wilcock (1998), “occupation is the central focus of Occupational Science” (p. 21).

surname and date in brackets – use double quotation marks and page no.

It has been claimed that “occupation is the central focus of Occupational Science” (Wilcock, 1998, p.21).

direct quotation of 40 or more words

indent the quote, include page no. (usually at end of quote), no quotation marks

Wilcock (1998) stated that:

Occupational therapists have proved poor at valuing the profession’s philosophical base and have failed to recognise ...(p.21)

direct quotation from electronic source with page nos.

Clinical reasoning is more a “matter of pattern recognition or direct automatic retrieval” (Elstein & Schwartz, 2002, p. 115).

direct quotation from electronic source without page nos.

Clinical reasoning is more a “matter of pattern recognition or direct automatic retrieval” (Elstein & Schwartz, 2002, Conclusion section, para. 2).

Note:

1. If paragraph numbers are not provided in electronic sources, cite the heading.
2. Page numbers (or section numbers/titles) are also needed for visuals (tables, graphs, figures) taken from sources.

document, organisation as author

In-text

use title of organisation

Methods for detecting and dealing with publication bias for diagnostic test studies are well developed (National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), 1999).

The National Health Workforce Strategic Framework was the first proactive government attempt to address Australia’s workforce issues (Australian Health Ministers’ Conference, 2004).

With the average weekly health expenditure continuing to rise, for example by 44% from 1998 to 2004 (Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), 2005), the government should review the structure of its financing … …

References

use title of organisation

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2005). (Catalogue No. 6530.0). Household expenditure survey, Australia: Summary of results, 2003-2004. Canberra, Australia: ABS.

Australian Health Ministers’ Conference. (2004). National health workforce strategic framework.. Sydney, Australia: NSW Health Department.

National Health and Medical Research Council. (1999). How to review the evidence: Systematic identification and review of scientific literature. Canberra, Australia: Biotext.

Note: In the first mention in-text, you should provide both the full and abbreviated forms of the organisation’s name if the source is cited again later in your assignment. In all subsequent citations, you use the abbreviated form only with the date, for example, (ABS, 2005), (NHMRC, 1999).

document, no author and no organisation

Locating and using quality sources is an important aspect of university study and is vital to produce well-written assignments. You should avoid documents with no author and no organisation, especially if accessed online, as they may not be from credible sources.

Cochrane Review

In-text

as for books and journal articles

References

include date and volume of Cochrane Review, article number, and date retrieved

Bunn, F., Byrne, G., & Kendall, S. (2004, July, 19). Telephone consultation and triage: Effects on health care use and patient satisfaction. Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews, 2004 (3), Article CH004180. Retrieved April 11, 2007, from The Cochrane Library Database.

internet journals

References

electronic version of print journal

add ‘[Electronic version]’, URL not required

Prigg, A., & Mackenzie, L. (2002). Project placements for undergraduate occupational therapy students: design, implementation and evaluation. (2001). [Electronic version]. Occupational Therapy International, 9 (3), 210-236.

electronic version that differs from print version

include URL and date retrieved

Weist, M.D. (2001). Toward a public mental health promotion and intervention system for youth. Journal of Social Health, 71, 101-104. Retrieved August 25, 2001, from ProQuest database.

Note: The URL is required for electronic versions that differ from the print version of the journal in page numbers or format, or where there are changes to figures and tables.

internet-only journal

include URL and date retrieved

Gravener, J.A., Haedt, A.A., Heatherton, T.F., & Keel, P.K. (2008). Gender and age differences in associations between peer dieting and drive for thinness. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 4 (1), 57-63. Retrieved February 14, 2008 from http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/114293312/PDFSTART

other internet documents

References

fact sheets

New Doctor. (2001). Medicare fact sheet 4: Equity, efficiency and health care. Retrieved May 8, 2006, from http://www.drs.org.au/new_doctor/75/fact_sheet_4.html

Menadue, J. (2005, April 15). Australia’s health care system ‘must’ be reformed. ABC Local Radio Transcript. [online]. Retrieved May 3, 2006, from http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2005/s1346096.html

thesis retrieved from an online database

Embar-Seddon, A.R. (2000). Perceptions of violence in the emergency department. [Abstract]. Dissertations Abstracts International, 61 (02), 776A. Retrieved August 23, 2001, from

http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit9963641

newspaper articles

Ragg, M. (1999, August 14). Wait watching. Sydney Morning Herald. [Online]. Retrieved May 6, 2006, from http://www.smh.com.au/print/1999/s140899.html

measurement, test, inventory, etc (no author)

In-text

use full name of measurement/test/inventory

The interview was conducted using the Leadership Inventory Style (n.d.) as a reference point.

References

use full name of measurement/test/inventory + organisation

Leadership Inventory Style. (n.d.) University of Southern California. Retrieved May 20, 2006, from http://www.rcf.usc.edu/~plc/handouts/LeadershipStyleInventory.doc

Note: When there is no date on the source document, use ‘n.d.’, both in-text and in the References.

legislation, professional codes of ethics

In-text

use name of legislation, date, and section number

An appointed guardian can give consent for non-psychiatric health care that is in the best interests of the person (Mental Health Act, 1986, 1a).

A social worker has an ethical responsibility to respect the client’s right to make informed decisions about their well-being (Australian Association of Social Workers (AASW), 1999, 4.1.1.c).

References

The Mental Health Act 1986, (Vic)

Australian Association of Social Workers. (1999). Code of ethics and by-laws on ethics. Canberra: AASW Ltd.

Note: Direct quotations from documents with sections should indicate the relevant section number.

brochure

References

use name of author/organisation, date, title and [Brochure]. If no author/organisation, use title.

Research and Training Centre on Independent Living. (2003). Guidelines for reporting and writing about people with disabilities. (4th ed.) [Brochure]. Melbourne: Author.

Note: The word ‘Author’ is used as the publisher when the author and publisher are the same thing.

information gained through personal communication

In-text

initials, surname and date (as exact a date as possible)

Variables selected should have clinical … (L.A. Bennett, personal communication, March 28, 2004).

Note: Personal communication can include an interview, telephone conversation, letter, or e-mail. Personal communication appears in-text only.

unpublished thesis

References

Dodd, K. (2000). A reliable and valid method for measuring lateral pelvic displacement after hemiparetic stroke. Unpublished doctoral thesis, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia.

conference papers

References

Dacakis, G., & Free, N. (2006 June). Gender representation of voice in male-to-female transsexuals. Paper presented at the 3rd World Voice Congress, Istanbul, Turkey.

Further reading

Guidelines on using the APA Referencing system and examples are also available at: The Writing Centre, University of Wisconsin-Madison http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocAPA.html and the Curtin university of technology Library http://www.library.curtin.edu.au/research_and_information_skills/referencing/index.html

Guidelines on using the Harvard Referencing system and examples are available at: http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/help/style-guides.php#Harvard http://www.latrobe.edu.au/asu/assign_manual.html http://www.library.curtin.edu.au/referencing/harvard.pdf

La Trobe University Library: Style Guides and Manuals. http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/help/style-guides.php

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. (2001). (5th ed.). Washington D.C: American Psychological Association. A copy of the Manual is to be found at the reference desk in the library or can be bought from the University Bookshop.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. (2001). (5th ed.). The Manual can also be accessed online at: http://www.apastyle.org

Chapter 11

Exam Strategies

Introduction

Written examinations generally deal with essays, short answer questions, multiple choice questions or a combination of these three. Your performance in an examination depends on preparation for the exam situation, as well as learning the required material. This chapter provides guidance specifically for students taking written examinations and gives tips on how to use your time effectively in preparing for exams, and how to approach answering exam questions.

Exam preparation

Knowing the rules of the game can be as useful as having the skills to play, so set yourself up first by finding out all you can.

Find out all you can about the type of exam you will be sitting

• Is the exam multiple choice, short answer, essay or a combination of several types? Consult your course outline, handbook, subject co-ordinator and previous exam papers in the library. Check with the subject co-ordinator to find out if the format of the exam will be the same as the previous year.

Check any special administrative procedures relating to the exam

• What are you entitled to bring with you to the exam, for example, a calculator, cards or tables, or even notes or books? This is the case for "open exams". If you are from a non-English speaking background, and you can prove this, you may be allowed to bring a dictionary with you.
• Warning: Bringing in illegal items may exclude you from participating in the exam, so always check first.
• Are you entitled to additional examination time? If you have a permanent or temporary disability, and this can be substantiated, you may be granted additional time. But you must apply for this before the exam.
• What happens if you are ill and cannot attend? In certain situations students may apply for special consideration.

Be sure you know how the mark will work

• What constitutes a pass? Is it 50%?
• What percentage of total mark for the subject is the exam? Do you have to pass the exam to pass the subject? Do not spend all your revision time calculating the odds of a pass, but do distribute your time and study efforts in a way that will maximise your overall performance in the course.

Revision

Gear your revision to the exam

Each type of exam tests a different type of knowledge and understanding. Moreover, the exam relates back to the aims the subject sets out to achieve (Refer to ‘The study cycle in Health Sciences’, Chapter 2). The following are the main exam types.

• Multiple Choice Questions require the student to recognise the most appropriate response from a selection. You must pay attention to detail. You are not required to make connections between points. In some cases, marks may be deducted for an incorrect response, so check before you guess.
• Short Answer Questions require the student to recall from memory. They can vary in length from a word to a paragraph. Practise by writing definitions, and be aware that there is often a direct correspondence between the number of marks for a question and the number of points you should make in the answer. Most of all, keep it short, save the essays for when they count.
• Essays require the student to test their general understanding of the subject matter. They require you to show a logical connection or sequence of knowledge and understanding. You will gain marks by having a well reasoned and structured response, with your arguments backed up by appropriate detail. Most of all, answer the question set, not your own personal ideal question.

Improving your memory

Remember the Four "R's":

• Read your notes/text and jot notes if need be.
• Recite out aloud the important points.
• Write important points down to test yourself.
• Repeat the above.

Get help early

Do not delay getting help if you have a problem. Seek help from lecturers/tutors, other students, Study Skills Advisers. You can self diagnose if you attempt a few practice questions early, then show them to your lecturer and your colleagues for comparison and feedback.

Learn how to relax

A very common concern among students is fear of failure. This fear of failure can cause you to feel nervous, sweaty, nauseated, experience a pounding heart beat and be unable to concentrate either before or during exams. Recognise the signs of stress, and seek help early. Practice deep breathing and relaxation techniques during the semester.

Immediately prior to the exam

• Check the exam location, be sure you know where and when to arrive.
• Organise reliable transport to the exam.
• If possible, avoid learning new information the day before the exam.
• Make your decision - Revise or Relax.
• Organise your exam equipment, pens and pencils, comfortable clothes, and Student ID.
• Go to bed early the night before the exam.
• Eat sensibly before the exam.

The exam

• Check the conditions: are you sitting in a draft, is your desk unsteady, is the sun going to shine directly on your paper, are you sitting too near a distracting person or thing?
• Alert someone if you have a question or need some help by putting your hand up.
• Use reading time wisely:
  • Read instructions carefully.
  • Count the number of questions and allocate time for each. For example, if there are four questions each worth 25 marks in a two hour exam, allow 30 minutes for each.
  • Mentally label questions according to difficulty, and plan your attack.
• Follow instructions about the number of questions which require answering. Read the instructions again, then again.
• Read questions carefully. Identify key words and jot down ideas. For longer questions (such as essays), consider using a plan. This can be especially important if you run out of time, as you can scrawl a note to your examiner to consider the plan as part of your answer.
• Start with a question you like. This helps increase your confidence and, if you run out of time, then you have perhaps attempted the questions you know best.
• Keep an eye on time. You might mark off blocks of time for each question and cross them out once each question is completed.
• If you are running out of time, write major points down in note form.
• Write simply and legibly. What cannot be read cannot be marked. Leave space between questions in case you want to come back and add something.
• Read what you have written. Have you written what the question has asked you to?

Hindrances to your performance

Memory blocks

Sometimes we know something, but we cannot find it inside our heads! How you store the information is very important to its retrieval, so make sure your revision is as systematic and structured as possible.

If you come unstuck in an exam:

• jot down any words, pictures, signs or symbols which might lead you to the information
• try to picture the lecture, the page or the picture where the information was presented
• do not get stuck, move on to the next question, relax, and come back to it later

Writer’s cramp

• Be alert to your posture, and consider a change in writing implement, for example, ink pen might flow faster than biro, a different pen width may relieve stress on your hands and wrist.
• Practise under simulated conditions to improve speed and legibility.
• Dangle your hand and wriggle your fingers, rest, stretch carefully, and take a few deep breaths.

Fatigue

If you are tired, you are disadvantaging yourself, so get a decent night's sleep. Be alert to your blood sugar, and keep to a careful diet. Most of all, beware of boredom in an exam; attack a different question, but keep going.

After the exam

Unwind! Review your performance for the next or future exams. At a later stage review your paper, but remember - a post mortem never actually saved the patient on the slab, so do not waste valuable time and emotions fretting over the exam you have done. Plan your attack on the next piece of assessment.

Further reading

Barrass, R. (2002). Study!: A guide to effective learning, revision and examination techniques. (2nd ed.). London; New York: Routledge.

Cadogan, J. (1990). Surviving exams: Study effectively and succeed. Sydney: Hobsons Press.

Marshall, L., & Rowland, F. (2006). A guide to learning independently. (4th ed.). Sydney: Pearson Education.

O'Meara, P., Shirley, D., & Walshe, R.D. (1987). How to study better and pass exams confidently. Melbourne:Longman Cheshire.

Chapter 12

Preparing For The Clinical Experience

Introduction

For many courses, the clinical or professional educational program is where you get the opportunity to put it all together and, in a carefully supervised and controlled environment, get to be "the practitioner". For ease of description, the process will be referred to as clinical education. However, this chapter deals with all those educational experiences you may have in a professional setting, either within Faculty based clinics, or on placement at external organisations.

What do I need to know?

To make the most of your clinical experience, you need to prepare yourself, and find out:

• Do I have the theoretical knowledge and practical skills required to make the most of what I will experience?
• Am I aware of the kind of placement I am going to - the place, the people, the client/patient population - so that I can maximise my learning?
• Do I know what they expect of me - the tasks I will perform, the level of competence I should exhibit, any prior reading I should undertake?
• Am I aware of the mechanical/procedural things - where the clinic/placement is, how I can get there, residential issues for non-metropolitan placements, what uniform/equipment I should have, what times I should attend, who I report to, and so on?
• What are the educational objectives set for this clinical experience - do I understand them, are they what I wish to get out of this clinic?
• What is the assessment/feedback mechanism and how can I make the most of this?
• What do I personally want from this clinical experience? What do I bring to it that will make it a quality learning experience? Am I carrying anything from past experiences that I should be aware of that will make this good, or not so good?

As this discussion shows, there are many questions, and probably many more that you might have. Further questions might be: What have I heard about this placement from other people, how accurate is their information? What about my part-time job, how will I fit it in? Where do I park? Where are the toilets? What is my supervisor's name - do I call her by her first name? Preparation will help relieve any anxieties you might have, and make it a better experience not only for you, but for the people you deal with in the clinical situation.

In addition to the questions you have about what you will experience, the Faculty of Health Sciences and the University also need to cover a few bases. Some of the issues are listed below.

• You may need a Police Clearance before you can work with clients in certain settings.
• There are special policies and procedures regarding illness, accidents and injuries (including immunisation and health status).
• Certain steps may need to be taken in the event that you clearly demonstrate unsatisfactory performance while on a clinical education program.

Where can I get some answers?

The two main sources of information are people and print. By asking those around you and consulting the relevant handbooks, manuals and handouts, you should be well equipped to make the most of your clinical education.

People

Faculty/School

• Subject Co-ordinator
• Clinical Co-ordinator
• Lecturers
• Tutors
  Go to them with your questions and concerns, and make sure that they are aware of any problems or special needs you may anticipate (from your health to your transport). It is better they know in advance rather than to try to sort out any difficulties you might experience after the event.
• Colleagues
  Find out from students who have already been there and done that. Some of what you hear may be myth, some may be about that person's particular and individual reaction to a situation, but much of what you hear will be valuable preparation for your experience.

At the Clinic/Institution

• Clinical Supervisor
• Other staff in the area you will be working in
  Under guidance from your Clinical Supervisor, it may be a good idea to contact your supervisor before you arrive, to get to know them, let them know you, and find out what preparation would help you (reading, visiting, thinking, doing).

Faculty of Health Sciences/University

• Study Skills Advisers
• Student Counsellors
• Student Organisations/Associations/Unions
  When you are away from University, especially if you are in a non-metropolitan placement, study or personal difficulties can emerge or worsen, and you may even feel a little isolated. This need not happen; see the Adviser/Counsellor before you go so that you are well prepared, and have a strong line of support.

Significant Others

• Friends
• Colleagues
• Family
  Clinical education is an exciting and demanding experience, and there are times when you may want to brief and debrief. Your friends and family are great to have at these times, and if you let them know just how you are feeling and what you need from them, it will make for a more rewarding experience for everyone.

Printed Information

• Clinical Handbook/Manual
• Further Reading

Most Schools provide students with a "Clinical Handbook" or "Clinical Manual" which will provide most of the information you could want or need. These books cover the mechanics of being on a clinical placement, assessment criteria, competencies levels and educational objectives, the policies and procedures that need to be followed, your rights and responsibilities, and who you can contact for further information. Once you have a hold of this book, carry it with you, it will be invaluable reading for you.

Chapter 13

Enquiry-Based Learning for Health Professionals

Introduction

Enquiry-based learning (EBL) is a teaching-learning method that focuses on students collaborating to pursue their own lines of enquiry and to share research and opinions in achieving the required learning objectives. This approach uses health-related situations as a context for learning critical thinking and problem-solving skills. and for further development of information literacy skills. EBL is a reversal of the traditional order of learning, where you had to learn the information and then apply it. In EBL, learning centres on an enquiry, or real-world project, which provides the context for group collaboration in research, exchange of information, and presentation and evaluation of ideas in relation to a given enquiry problem. This chapter outlines the characteristics of EBL and the different roles of facilitator and student.

Why learn this way?

Each of the health professions has identified a range of competencies necessary for professional practice. For example:

Health professionals must be able to demonstrate reflective practice: be able to identify their own abilities and level of competence, and to act to enhance their own professional development. This requires practitioners to be up to date in their knowledge and skills. Therefore, they are expected to be self-directed learners and able to self evaluate and resource their own learning (Anonymous).

EBL allows students to develop critical thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, and reflective skills expected of a health professional, including working in an interdisciplinary context. Moreover, central to EBL is team work, an important aspect of health professional practice.

Characteristics of EBL

EBL is a teaching-learning approach which:

• uses real-world situations as a context for learning
• focuses on thinking skills, e.g. critical analysis, problem-solving, and decision-making
• requires an integration of inter-disciplinary knowledge, skills and behaviour
• requires students to take responsibility for their own learning and share their learning in small groups
• allows students to develop life-long learning skills

Adapted from Penny Little, PBL Pty Ltd. (pennylittlePBL@bigpond.com)

The process of EBL

Unlike traditional teaching and learning approaches, in EBL the enquiry is central. Furthermore, the starting point for each enquiry is a real-life case or situation, which then leads to an exploration of the issues involved through research, input from lectures, group discussions, and so on. The diagram below illustrates the cycle of learning activities in an EBL enquiry.

The EBL Enquiry

Reproduced with the permission of Penny Little, PBL Pty Ltd.

The Enquiry

The enquiry is designed to support your learning of critically important knowledge and skills, and to enable you to develop capabilities that are an important aspect of your development as a health professional. You need to carry out individual learning activities and develop your capabilities further by working with other members of your team. Self-directed learning refers to research undertaken by students individually and in groups by locating relevant sources, and gathering key information related to the problem. Structured learning tasks include lectures, and most importantly workshops for group work led by a facilitator. Application of learning to enquiry problem occurs throughout the investigation and informs each stage of the process: each workshop and group meeting and the texts (e.g. oral presentation, a group poster, written report) produced to achieve the learning objectives.

Example of an Enquiry

The aim of the enquiry is to explore the benefits of using a team-based approach for the delivery of health and human services from the perspectives of the consumer, health and human services organisations and their staff. The enquiry problem centres on the need for health agencies and local government to combine efforts to address the increasing number of injuries among young people in the Cooinda Region.

An interdisciplinary project team would be engaged by the Cooinda Regional Community Committee, established to bring together health and human service agencies, local government and community representatives in the Region, to investigate the issue and to present the findings to a meeting of the Committee.

You will begin this enquiry by considering the concept of a team using reflections on your own observations of teams in popular culture. Different models of teamwork, obstacles to effective teamwork and managing issues that arise when working in a team will be examined. In the latter part of this enquiry, you will focus on different types of team that exist in the health and human services sector and how their function impacts on the outcomes for the consumer, their family, the organisation and its staff.

You and your team are required to submit a number of pieces of work for this enquiry. The individual task involves three stages. Firstly, you prepare a short summary of a text allocated to you in the first phase of the enquiry. Then you share your review with those prepared by other team members of their allocated text. Finally, you locate a text, such as a journal article or section or chapter of a text, relevant to your work in this enquiry. You will need to prepare a summary of a specified length synthesising the main points from the various texts you have read for this enquiry.

The team task is to prepare a team poster and an oral presentation. The poster presents the teams’ exploration of interprofessional collaboration. Your oral presentation should support the content of your poster. Both individual and team tasks will be assessed according to specific learning outcomes in relation to team work, academic skills, and communication skills.

Adapted from Enquiry 1, Interprofessional Practice A (HLTIPA), 28 October, 2008.

Facilitator’s role

The role of the facilitator is to:

• support students in making their teams effective learning teams.
• encourage teams to become autonomous.
• promote development of learning skills
• monitor students’ progress.
• question and challenge students in applying their learning to their investigation.
• provide students with feedback on achievement of learning outcomes.
• serve as a resource person and promote the use of a variety of resources.

Facilitators may differ in the way they run their groups. This may be due to the different expectations across units and across years. Moreover, facilitators need to respond to individual team differences.

Student’s role

The role of the student is to:

• think like a health professional: problem-solving, decision-making, critical and creative thinking.
• accept responsibility for own learning and be a self-directed learner.
• take an active role in planning, organising and evaluating own learning.
• be an effective group member: share information with group members by contributing to research, group discussions, making decisions about and evaluating group processes.
• evaluate own and group members’ learning/achievement of learning outcomes.

Adapted from Penny Little, PBL Pty Ltd.

With its emphasis on self-directed learning, EBL offers students greater opportunities than traditional teaching-learning approaches to develop skills required for life-long learning.

The Last Word

La Trobe University
Faculty of Health Sciences
Bundoora Campus
Study Skills Scheme
Study Skills Handbook