Qualitative Data & Private Security in the Hospitality Industry: The Hidden Agenda
Diane Mead Niblo
Mervyn S. Jackson
Department of Psychology & Intellectual Disability Studies
RMIT University
Abstract
The study of private security has received little attention in scholarly research; there is a need to put this area on the academic agenda as a serious issue because of the social implications related to private security. Researching private security has its problems. Some people in the industry do not want to talk about security while others want to talk about it a great deal. There were two main foci of this research: the reason for these diametrically opposed views and the process of developing trust. Private security personnel believe that people tend to see them as uneducated bouncers. The hidden agenda among this sample was to try and change that image, to legitimise their job function.
The research focus for this project was to find out the how and the why of private security. Yin (1989) argued that the case study method was the best approach for this type of research. Can we trust our sources? This research explores the problems for the qualitative researcher in trying to study a hidden phenomenon. One of the most important areas of this research was in the building of trust. The questions that were asked were in depth and probing. These issues will be discussed in greater detail.
Contact details:
Dr. Diane Mead Niblo
Lecturer in Psychology
RMIT University
Plenty Rd.
Bundoora, 3083
Te. 9925-7375
Fax. 9925-7303
e-mail niblo@rmit.edu.au
Qualitative Data & Private Security in the Hospitality Industry: The Hidden Agenda
Introduction
The aim of this research was to study private security in the hotel industry in Australia. There is a small but expanding body of material on the rapidly growing private security industry in general, but very little on the hotel industry. This is a difficult area to study because private security tends to be kept out of sight. By its very nature, the success of the crime prevention—the focus of much of security work—depends on procedures being kept out of public view.
The approach adopted here, given the paucity of studies of hotel security, was that of an in-depth exploration of what was relatively unknown terrain. It was decided to carry out a series of qualitative case studies on actual hotels, using an interviewing method that would permit extensive probing of the perceptions, attitudes and behaviour of hotel personnel. Yin (1989) has pointed out the advantages of a case study approach for such research.
In general, case studies are the preferred strategy when “how” or “why” questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control over events, and when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context. Such “explanatory” case studies also can be complemented by two other types - “exploratory” and “descriptive” case studies (Yin, 1989:13).
The research, reported here had to be designed to be minimally intrusive because of the sensitive nature of private security. A high level of intrusion would not have been tolerated by either the organisation or the individuals studied. The procedure used was a holistically constructed group of case studies of a small number of hotels. Each case study was treated as unique and those characteristics that set each hotel apart from the others are identified as well as the general issues of security that relate to each hotel.
The Sample
The choice of hotels to serve as multiple case studies in the area of private security was a pragmatic decision that flowed from contacts made at the Victoria University of Technology. Because of its recognised expertise in hospitality management, VUT proved to be a useful source of direct contacts in the hotel industry. By contrast with many fields, people in this industry were quite willing to talk about their security problems. Moreover, many of the lecturers in that area worked part time in the university and also held jobs in industry. Thus contacts were easy to build beyond the walls of academia. Initial interviews with security managers, assistant managers, and duty managers confirmed that many were prepared to talk quite openly about their field. Many knew their industry had never attracted serious attention from researchers and, therefore, they saw the study as adding a degree of legitimacy to their area. Several key figures also taught part-time in various universities and were sympathetic to this project from its inception.
Many in the hotel industry seemed to feel that their enterprise suffered from not being taken seriously. Perhaps an older emphasis on the ‘hotel detective’ spying on guests and/or the mundane nature of many crimes in hotels made the industry less glamorous than such security topics as ‘hackers’ breaking into the Pentagon’s computer banks or large scale employee fraud. The majority of the subjects thought that the general public and academic researchers belittled their efforts and trivialised their problems. Finally, the very word ‘security’ tends to evoke images to the general public of uniformed security guards and nightclub bouncers. Those in the industry know that their security problems and efforts go far beyond these immediately obvious manifestations of the quest for security.
The sample consisted of seven hotels. Four of these were large, well known, highly visible five-star establishments. The remaining three were smaller ‘boutique’ five and four-star hotels. It would not have been feasible to study more hotels, as the methodology was intensive and the unique character of each hotel had to be maintained. By focusing on a small number of hotels, their unique character, as well as their configurations and their common features were preserved. In conducting these case studies, on site field observations were used as well as on site interviews with key actors in each hotel.
The procedure involved an initial contact that was made either by calling the human resources manager direct or by contacting the security manager. In those hotels where there was no formal security department, the initial contact was the individual who would be responsible for the security of the hotel. The most senior of the duty managers or assistant managers were invariably contacted. A time was agreed to and the interviews took place at each of the hotels. This personal approach allowed for on site observations and detailed drawings to be made of each hotel.
Two separate foci of attention oriented the study of problems and perceptions of security in the hotel industry. At one level, security issues that were of great significance included problems of liability, privacy, surveillance, social control and personal safety. At another level, mundane crime consumed a great deal of attention and—even though many of the individual thefts were small—in aggregate, they added up to a major problem for the industry over time. The initial impression was that these problems were similar in the large hotels and the boutique hotels; nevertheless, comparisons between the two categories of hotels were thought to be a valuable contribution to the understanding of security in the hotel industry.
The Case Study Method
There is a growing body of opinion that argues that qualitative research, including the case study, has an important place among the variety of research methodologies available to the researcher. ‘Yet the traditional case study still remains firmly within the domain of the qualitative researcher’ (Tesch, 1990:69).
Burns has argued that the case study, because of its intense nature and its ability to generate rich subjective data, may generate more intensive research. (Burns, 1994:313). The case study allows for in-depth probing of phenomena, and, according to Burns:
...typically involves the observation of an individual unit... to qualify as a case study, it must be a bounded system, an entity in itself. A case study should focus on a bounded subject/unit that is either very representative or extremely atypical (Burns, 1994:312-3).
Many approaches have been taken in terms of the development of case studies. Tesch (1990) argued that a case study is an ‘intensive and detailed study of one individual or of a group as an entity, through observation, self-reports, and any other means’ (Tesch, 1990:39). Others see the case study in more elaborate terms. Hessler (1992) has argued:
The emphasis is on detailed, deep data. No stone is left unturned as the researcher explores every possible avenue in a concerted effort to penetrate below the surface of things. Case study is best used to generate research questions and to help the social scientist formulate concepts and theory (Hessler, 1992:195).
The case study was judged to be appropriate for this study in that it would allow an in-depth examination of issues that are important to the nature of private security. At the same time, it would impose structure on the research and allow for comparisons. By definition, a project in an area that has received little attention is likely to require a strategy which is exploratory in nature. ‘These “how” and “why” questions, capturing what you are really interested in answering, led you to the case study as the appropriate strategy...’ (Yin, 1989:30). That is to say, the researcher has to leave room for material and information to emerge over the course of the research project. Nevertheless, Yin also argued that every exploration still should have a purpose. Thus a set of questions was prepared to direct and guide the interview. Covering the same questions in each hotel also had the advantage of creating the possibility of cross-hotel comparisons for the various responses.
Multiple Case Studies
The specific approach employed for this research was a multiple-case study design (Yin, 1989). For each hotel, a case study involving both observation and interviews with hotel staff was constructed. Because so little research had been done on security in the hospitality industry, the use of multiple case studies allowed for more evidence to be gathered and comparisons to be made between hotels both large and small. The approach was open ended in that it allowed the research to go as far as possible before exhausting the sources of information. Yin has discussed the difference between ‘replication, not sampling logic, for multiple-case studies’ (Yin, 1989:53). For such research he argued:
Each case must be carefully selected so that it either (a) predicts similar results (a literal replication) or (b) produces contrary results but for predictable reasons (a theoretical replication). Thus, the ability to conduct six or ten case studies, arranged effectively within a multiple-case design, is analogous to the ability to conduct six to ten experiments on related topics; a few cases (two or three) would be literal replications, whereas a few other cases (four to six) might be designed to pursue two different patterns of theoretical replications (Yin, 1989:53).
It can be argued that the present case studies are a replication design in that workers in all of the hotels were asked to talk about their security operations, the purpose being ‘...to convince the reader of a general phenomenon’ (Yin, 1989:55). Burns elaborated on the concept of replication:
A collection of case studies, ie. the multi-case study, is not based on the sampling logic of multiple subjects in one experiment. If the cases are not aggregated it is convenient to apply the term case study to such an investigation (Burns, 1994:316).
For each of the seven hotels, then, an extensive case history was prepared which provided the material for the present research. The first step involved the preparation of the detailed case studies through procedures of direct observation and extensive in-depth interviewing and second, abstracting from observations and interview material in each of these which are drawn upon for the explication of material relevant to the questions which guided this research.
Direct Observations
Part of the work reported here involved direct observation. A minimum of two field visits were made to each hotel and in four cases three field visits were made. In addition to the interviews, these field visits consisted of the investigator going on site, recording the architectural design of the hotel and observing from the viewpoint of a customer the security at each hotel. In case studies, Yin also noted that; ‘Observational evidence is often useful in providing additional information about the topic being studied’ (Yin 1989:91). Sproull (1988) defined such observation as; "A data collection method in which a person (usually trained) observes subjects or phenomena and records information about characteristics of the phenomena" (Sproull, 1988:166); and argued that there are several advantages to observation as a data gathering method
Judd, Smith and Kidder (1991) have described how many observations may be mundane at first glance but upon reflection may take on new meaning when studied in a particular context. Judd et al. used an example of how some individuals put fences around their property and some do not. Whilst this may appear mundane at first glance, the social scientist may gain new insights when he or she tries to understand the reasons why certain properties are marked and others not. In this research, on site observations were used to examine such issues as how property was divided into public or private space. The design of the buildings can have major implications for private security; at times it is easy to recognise the problems that will flow from design. Judd et al. (1991) defined natural settings as; “...contexts that are not established for research purposes, such as shopping centers, private homes, racetracks, commercial aircraft, churches, or hospitals” (Judd et al. 1991:271).
After initial contact through interviews, the informants frequently took the researcher on tours of the premises. Going behind the scenes—in ‘back of house’ as it is invariably called in the industry—provided a look at parts of the hotel that are off-limits to hotel guests.
While far from ordinary, these seven hotels were places with work routines, places where people did in fact “work, live and relax.”
The Long Interview
There were two major sets of interviews with the largest hotels. These interviews were quite lengthy—generating nearly 500 pages in transcription— and they continued until it was clear that all issues had been exhausted. At times information was subsequently clarified and further interviews were conducted. There was a tendency to reach this point of saturation far earlier in the process in the smaller hotels.
In addition to allowing for the subject to describe the security procedures in depth and detail, these interviews allowed the researcher to build a relationship with the subjects and probe as deeply as the subject was willing to go. Trust was essential for the researcher to extract the maximum amount of information from each interview. In cases where the interview flowed especially well, high levels of confidence led to sensitive information being revealed. This was reflective of the complex relationships that these interviews produced. As McCracken (1988) argued:
One of the important differences between most qualitative and quantitative research is that the former demands a much more complex relationship between investigator and respondent (McCracken, 1988:25).
McCracken also pointed out that visible cues such as dress and institutional affiliation provided important cues to respondents. Since the hotels in this study were all five and four star establishments—and dress was a main criterion when management discriminated against someone who seemed inappropriate—dress was considered to be of utmost importance. Therefore business suits were always worn to interviews and on site observations.
A certain formality in dress, demeanor, and speech is useful because it helps the respondent cast the investigator in the role of a “scientist”, someone who asks very personal questions out of not personal but professional curiosity. This formality also helps to reassure the respondent that the investigator can be trusted to maintain the confidentiality has been promised the respondent (McCracken, 1988:27).
Williamson, Karp, Dalphin, & Gray (1982) have argued that in certain types of qualitative research, a different form of interviewing is more appropriate than the traditional survey type of interview where interviewers ask prescribed questions and are not allowed to deviate from the questions. They contended: "Some sort of direct interview seems a necessity, but the traditional form of survey research interviewing will not suffice" (Williamson et al. 1982:164). They went on to argue:
Intensive interviewing places a premium on the interviewer's ability to make quick judgments concerning what to say or do next at any given point in the interview. This factor, more than anything else, determines the ultimate productivity of the interview.
Most intensive interviews are lengthy, with three hours not an uncommon duration. This provides an opportunity for the good intensive interviewer to nurture the incipient relationship with the respondent, enhancing the development of a conversational, give-and-take rapport, and the likelihood of frank revelations (Williamson et al. 1982:164-65).
Sproull (1988:161) elaborated further on the advantages of the in-depth interview technique, as it:
• elicits information directly from people.
• allows opportunity for probing; finding out why people feel or respond the way they do.
• allows opportunity to clarify information as it is given.
• allows opportunity to explain complex information.
• allows opportunity to clarify previously collected data.
This research project also required a qualitative approach as the investigation delved into the private security function in hotels. It required access to confidential information which is likely only to be elicited by in-depth interviews.
The list of basic questions in the interview protocol contained about thirty items ranging from general questions about the hotel to more explicit questions about the security system. In general, the interview was structured to proceed from the general to the specific and from the innocuous to the controversial. The idea behind this structure was to get as much information as possible before approaching sensitive material. That way, even if a security manager decided that the interview had gone as far as he or she was prepared to go, the maximum possible amount of information would already have been gained.
Frequently in research one finds data and or information serendipitously and this is facilitated by the long interview. It became apparent after several interviews that some individuals were more suspicious than others. Some felt that their job could be placed in jeopardy in this era of high unemployment if they spoke out of turn. In these cases the general manager was approached and given assurances that the name of the hotel or the informant would not be mentioned. In other instances the human resource manager was the individual approached and given assurances as to the anonymity of all those concerned for the purpose of reassuring the contact.
The long interview technique was also useful because it provided an opportunity to meet with the people involved in security and to establish on-going relationships over a long period of time. As trust was developed, interviewees would discuss some of their recent security incidents. Each interview opened up new areas in which to probe at greater depth. As confidence grew, sensitive procedures emerged and information about other hotels emerged.
McCracken, (1988) has argued that qualitative research is ‘complexity-catching’, allowing for probing, detailing and clarifying issues. In the present study such a technique was required given the high degree of confidence a look at the inside of the industry demanded. There were instances where information was revealed to the researcher that could have had on adverse impact on the establishment if it was generally known. The security managers often revealed the location and technological sophistication of the security hardware and the location of secret surveillance monitors. For instance, in one hotel, selected security cameras were not connected and were, in effect, a bluff.
The study of private security can be difficult in that some informants may not want to disclose what they perceive to be their ‘secrets’. In business settings, internal information is normally viewed as private and confidential. Inside information can mean instant profit in the financial arena and even in industry the possibility that a competitor may learn secrets can pose a threat. The researcher in the area of security inevitably faces the fundamental problems of confidentiality and secrecy, and the research techniques have to be adaptable, fluid and permit negotiation in terms of data collected. For such a task, the long interview, and case study method seemed ideal.
Instrumentation: the Interview Protocol
The questionnaire covered the broad areas of:
• The organisation of security
• Issues of privacy
• Proactive and reactive procedures
• Powers of private security, and
• The relationship of private security with the public police.
As the study proceeded, the interviewees were also asked to add to the list of questions any issues they thought were important and that might have been missed.
Human Ethics
Research in the area of security poses some unique challenges. Ethical standards require the researcher to disclose the exact nature of the project. In this study, subjects were asked for access to confidential information. Yet to some degree it must be accepted that the very nature of security requires that material be ‘hidden’, ie. the very disclosure of the information could pose a threat to the efficacy of security efforts.
After initial contact was made—by calling the human resource manager and asking general questions, such as did they have a formal security department—the human resource manager, the assistant manager, or the security manager then either made an appointment for the researcher or gave the researcher the name of the person to call. After an appointment was made the hotel was visited and the initial interviews took place. It was explained to all interviewees that the information they gave was confidential; all tapes would be coded so that none would recognise the hotel and after the research was over, the supervisor of this research would keep the tapes for twelve months. It was explained that the interviewee may terminate the interview at any time and if he or she did not want the interview to be on tape, the recorder would be turned off. Only one respondent did not want the interview to be taped.
Limitations
There are limitations to the use of the case study. One such limitation is the time and effort involved. Burns (1994) has noted:
Multi-case designs can be considered advantageous in that the evidence can be more compelling. However, the conduct of a multi-case study requires more time and effort than most investigators can spend (Burns, 1994:317)
Also, Hessler (1992) has argued:
The case study is a subjective design in the sense that the case chosen for study and the personal documents selected, if any, are usually based on the personal preference or special interest of the researcher....Thus, while the subjectivity of the case study is seen as a weakness by some, others see the opportunity to “triangulate” case study observational and historical documents with survey statistics, all in the same study (Hessler, 1992:197).
There is an obvious problem of generalisation which is inevitable in the utilisation of a method which relies on seven case studies located in one city. To some degree there is a bit of gain by having multiple sites rather than simply one hotel. Certainly, the common characteristics of many of the problems gave some reassurance that the study tapped issues which might occur in other hotels including those in other cities. At the same time it must be acknowledged that a potential cost of an in-depth method such as that employed here is the possibility that the information obtained has limited generalisability to other hotels. The gain, however, was that the issue of security was seen in the context of the overall workings of each of the seven hotels. For an initial and exploratory study which was aimed at obtaining a broad overview of the core functions of security, given this procedure seemed not only sensible, but essential. As indicated earlier, this research asked a number of what Yin (1989) called ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions. Hessler (1992) argued:
Case study is best used to generate research questions and to help the social scientist formulate concepts and theory. The case study is useless for testing hypotheses, but it is indispensable for in-depth viewing of social life (Hessler, 1992:195).
David Wellman (1982) in his study of white racism responded to criticism for using a small sample method by saying:
I do not intend to make predictions about group life, my task is different; it is one that Coles describes when he introduces his work. It is ... to convey not only what is (itself rather a daunting task but how men and women and children, who are, deal with the things of this world, the “reality’ or “environment”... (Wellman, 1982:69).
In short, a qualitative methodology was deemed appropriate for this study. Given our lack of knowledge about hotels and security, a multiple case study procedure based upon the in-depth interview was judged to be an effective way to understand the issues of security in the hotel industry and the variety of ways that security managers deal with security problems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
References
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Judd, C, Smith, E, & Kidder, L. (1991) Research methods in social relations. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
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